Private education in a poor country: The case of urban Bolivia

Investment in education is critical for economic growth and poverty alleviation. Such investment is typically being financed by the state. Yet in many countries families contribute privately to the education of their children. In an era of stagnating public budgets for education (and practically anything else), the private financing of education gains importance for a country's investment in human resources to be maintained. It is often claimed that private education is highly selective and afforded only by the rich. In this paper we examine the extent of private expenditure on education in a country that is among the poorest—Bolivia. In the empirical analysis we use data from both the 1990 and 1992 household surveys (Encuesta Intergrada de Hogares). The results show that there is a remarkable willingness of households in Bolivia to pay for private education for their children.     

Health and Medical Care among the Children of Immigrants

Using data spanning 1996–2009 from multiple panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation, this study investigates children’s (average age 8.5 years) physical health, dental visits, and doctor contact among low‐income children (n = 46,148) in immigrant versus native households. Immigrant households are further distinguished by household citizenship and immigration status. The findings show that children residing in households with non‐naturalized citizen parents, particularly those with a nonpermanent resident parent, experience worse health and less access to care even when controlling for important demographic, socioeconomic, and health insurance variables.     

Education savings plans,matching contributions,and household financial allocations: Evidence from a Canadian reform

Despite a large literature that investigates the effects of education savings plans on schooling outcomes, much less is known about how parents finance this saving and how it affects other household spending, including spending broadly related to child-rearing. To provide new insights on this issue, this paper estimates the spillover effects of contributions to an education savings plan on household spending and retirement saving behavior in Canada. The analysis uses a cross-sectional, nationally-representative household expenditures survey (N = 28,978) and, in an instrumental variables design, exploits policy-induced variation in education saving resulting from changes in federal matching contributions for low-income and middle-income households. The analysis finds that education saving has little effect on total household expenditures, donations, and home investments, and crowds in retirement saving among households with strictly positive net contributions in both types of saving vehicles. Only out-of-house childcare expenditures decrease as a result of education saving, suggesting that households substitute between educational investments and current spending on other child-rearing commodities. However, the dollar value of this substitution is small. These findings offer new insights into how households finance education saving for their children and suggest that different types of tax-preferred saving vehicles may be complementary rather than substitutes.     

Fee-free public or low-fee private basic education in rural Ghana: how does the cost influence the choice of the poor?

The paper uses data from a household survey of three rural communities and interviews in the Mfantseman Municipality in the Central Region of Ghana to investigate the costs incurred by households that choose either fee-free public schools or low-fee private schools. The paper shows that both provisions impose costs that place those with lower household incomes at a disadvantage since the poorest cannot afford the costs for several children. Although fee-free public education has led to the elimination of payments such as tuition, exams and extra classes fees, other direct costs such as feeding and school uniform consume a large part of the household expenditure on education for the poor. Low-fee for profit private schools remain out of reach and are not affordable by the poorest. The paper concludes that fee-free public schooling still leaves households with significant costs, which constitute a barrier to access for children from poor households. The findings indicate the need for the government of Ghana, and those other countries with similar circumstances, to develop and implement policies that are pro-poor and ensure that there are no costs to the poorest households since this is the only way all children will enjoy a full cycle of basic education as mandated by commitments to Education for All.     

DOES FAMILY BACKGROUND MATTER FOR LEARNING IN EAST AFRICA?

ABSTRACT

The extent to which differences in family background characteristics explain differences in learning outcomes between children captures the extent of equality in educational opportunities. This study uses large-scale data on literacy and numeracy outcomes for children of school age across East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) to investigate the contribution of family background to learning differences. We find that learning differences between children from less-advantaged households and those from more-advantaged households equals around one year or more of effective learning on average. Even so, family background does not fully explain why children of school starting age display large differences in learning between countries.     

Inter-professional pedagogical collaboration between teachers and their out-of-school partners

Teachers cross boundaries when they collaborate with out-of-school partners to provide more authentic learning experiences for students. Using the framework of boundary crossing, the study draws on interview data from schools and their out-of-school partners to examine the research question of how the research participants viewed the beginning of their inter-professional pedagogical collaboration. We use this term because in the context of primary and secondary education contexts mere inter-professional collaboration has usually referred to activities aimed, for example, at addressing children’s social exclusion. The starting point for inter-professional pedagogical collaboration can be seen through the identification of boundaries and boundary crossing. Using theory-based analysis to categorise the interview data, inter-professional pedagogical collaboration became evident in terms of (1) shared pedagogical knowledge, (2) finding roles in new situations and contexts, and (3) resources for collaboration. Recognising these can help schools respond to the needs of twenty-first century learning.     

Determinants of participation and expenditure patterns of private tuition received by primary school students in Penang,Malaysia: an exploratory study

In this exploratory study, the censored Tobit model is applied on primary data collected amongst parents of primary school students in Penang, Malaysia to examine the determinants of participation and expenditures on private tuition (PT). Results of the marginal effects indicate that socio-demographic characteristics – ethnicity, household income, level of schooling, and marital status – affect the probability of participation and its corresponding conditional (amongst those whose spending is positive) and unconditional (overall) expenditures. Specifically, compared to ethnic Malays, households of Chinese and Indian descent are more likely to send their children to PT, whilst spending more on conditional and unconditional expenditures, ceteris paribus. Low-income households have a lower likelihood to enrol their children in PT classes and spend less on conditional and unconditional expenditures than higher income households. Upper primary students are more likely to attend PT and spend more on conditional and unconditional expenditures than lower primary students. Single-parent households spend more on conditional and unconditional expenditures than households where both parents are together, all else equal. Based on these findings, several observations in terms of comparisons to other studies and policy implications are noted vis-à-vis the demand for PT amongst primary school students.     

Effects of adult health interventions at scale on children’s schooling: Evidence from antiretroviral therapy in Zambia

In 2007, approximately one in five children in Zambia lived with an HIV positive adult. We identify the effect of adult antiretroviral therapy (ART) availability at scale on children’s educational outcomes by combining data on the expansion of ART availability with two national household surveys that include HIV testing. Through a triple difference specification, we find that the availability of ART increased the likelihood that children in households with HIV positive household heads started school on time and were the appropriate grade-for-age. Two mechanisms were likely decreased incidental infections in the household and related care giving duties.     

Household expenditures on private tutoring: emerging evidence from Malaysia

Private tutoring has been a burgeoning phenomenon in Malaysia for decades. This study examines the determinants of private tutoring expenditures in Malaysia using the 2004/2005 Household Expenditures Survey and applies hurdle regression models to the data. The results indicate that total household expenditures, household head’s level of education, household head’s gender, number of school-age children, and home ownership are important determinants of private tutoring expenditures in Malaysia. In comparison with Malay households, Chinese and Indian households have a higher likelihood of enrolling their children in private tutoring and spending on private tutoring. Indigenous households are less likely to spend for tutoring, but once their children are enrolled, they spend more than their Malay counterparts. Regional characteristics are also important determinants of private tutoring expenditures.     

Children’s school placement in Germany: does Kindergarten attendance matter?

The positive effects of Early Childhood Programs (ECP’s) on children’s school success have been demonstrated in the literature. However, most studies were completed in the U.S.A., where ECP’s vary widely, based on differing auspice, regulation, cost, and other factors. In European countries, ECP’s are generally far more homogenous. This is particularly true for Germany where most programs are community-based Kindergartens operated under similar structural conditions.In this study, we examine the relationship between Kindergarten attendance and the 7th grade school placement of children in West Germany, differentiating associations for the children of German citizens as compared to those of immigrants. Using information from a representative population sample, the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), different models were estimated. The results indicate that there is no significant relationship between Kindergarten attendance of children of German citizens and children’s later school placement. However, for children in immigrant households the reverse is true: later school placement was significantly associated with Kindergarten attendance prior to school enrollment. Additionally, the analysis showed that controlling for Kindergarten attendance changed the level of significance for other well-known “school attainment determinants,” such as father’s education and household income.     

Potential effects of COVID-19 school closures on foundational skills and Country responses for mitigating learning loss

This article investigates to what extent disrupted schooling and dropout affects children’s acquisition of foundational skills prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using household survey data from thirteen low- and lower-middle-income countries, we find that missing or dropping out of school is associated with lower reading and numeracy outcomes. Drawing on global surveys conducted during the pandemic, we find that countries’ remote learning responses are often inadequate to keep all children learning, avoid dropout, and mitigate the learning losses our findings predict, particularly for marginalized children and those at the pre-primary level.     

Who gets what? Is improved access to basic education pro-poor in Sub-Saharan Africa?

This paper explores changing patterns of access to basic education in six Sub-Saharan Africa countries using data from Demographic and Health Surveys at two points in time. In general the analysis confirms that participation of children in schooling has increased over the last decade. However, access to education remains strongly associated with household wealth. In most countries the differences associated with urban and rural residence and sex are smaller than those associated with household wealth. Over time the wealth gradient related to access has deteriorated more often than it has improved in the countries in the sample. Disturbingly, the proportion of over age children has also risen rather than fallen more often than not, and the poorer the household the more likely children are to be over age. Increased numbers of over age children are indicative of internal inefficiencies, and make it unlikely that goals to universalise access and completion will be achieved. Education for All should be pro-poor and where it is not, it is failing.     

Access or quality? Why do families living in slums choose low-cost private schools in Lagos,Nigeria?

Lagos is home to 12,098 private schools catering to 57% of the state's enrolled children, from ultra-rich to relatively poor households, with many schools targeting those of lower socio-economic status. Government schools were intended to provide a just and equitable option for all; however, they have not kept pace with demand in terms of both capacity and quality, causing concerned parents to look elsewhere. This paper draws on original household survey data to investigate why parents living in slums would put considerable strain on their household budgets to access fee-paying primary education for their children, and discusses the equity implications of this situation. Context is provided through data from the first comprehensive private school census in Lagos during the school year 2010–2011. It is found that parents choose private schools because government schools are perceived to be failing (or too far from home), but also that they have higher expectations than can be provided by private schools run on incredibly tight budgets with often untrained teachers. It is highly questionable then how under such circumstances social justice can be served through this scenario.     

Challenging the myths about madaris in Pakistan: A national household survey of enrolment and reasons for choosing religious schools

There is speculation about madaris in Pakistan as sources of terrorists and about levels and reasons for enrolment, but a dearth of empirical data. We studied madarsah enrolment among 53,960 representative households; 853 focus groups of parents discussed enrolment choices. In 2004, 2.6% of all children (3.8% of school-going children) aged 5–9 years attended a madarsah. Children from urban and less educated households were more likely to attend a madarsah, but there was no difference by sex of the child or household vulnerability. Parents chose madaris because they offered an Islamic education. Our findings challenge misconceptions about madaris in Pakistan.     

Income and Social Rank Influence UK Children's Behavioral Problems: A Longitudinal Analysis

Children living in low‐income households face elevated risks of behavioral problems, but the impact of absolute and relative income to this risk remains unexplored. Using the U.K. Millennium Cohort Study data, longitudinal associations between Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores and absolute household income, distance from the regional median and mean income, and regional income rank were examined in 3‐ to 12‐year‐olds (n = 16,532). Higher absolute household incomes were associated with lower behavioral problems, while higher income rank was associated with lower behavioral problems only at the highest absolute incomes. Higher absolute household incomes were associated with lower behavioral problems among children in working households, indicating compounding effects of income and socioeconomic advantages. Both absolute and relative incomes therefore appear to influence behavioral problems.     

Inequalities in access to higher education in Africa: How large are they? Do they mirror the situation in the metropole 60 years ago?

There have been many studies of the socio-economic background of students in developed countries; but – apart from extensive commentary on the gender gap – far fewer in developing countries. In Africa, this is mostly because the University record systems do not record corresponding data; and because the international standard household surveys such as DHS only ask about educational attainment of household members which of course mainly excludes current students. This paper uses the record systems of the African Institute of Mathematical Sciences (AIMS) and specifically the Pre-Assessment form completed by all students on entry with information about their parental background.The combination of parents not having more than primary education, renting and not owning land identified only between 1 and 3 students a year. Taking the opposite extreme, the percentage of entrants reporting that their parents had a post-Secondary qualification is considerably higher (around 57% on average) than the norm at the time the parents would have been studying (around 7%). These students were certainly not poor, they are upper middle class. Further analysis identifies differences in the patterns for those at Anglophone or Francophone centres; and trends over the last four years.The paper then reviews the trends in inequality in access to higher education in the ‘mother’ countries – UK and France – from about sixty years ago until recently, to ask whether the social inequalities observed among AIMS students can be seen as ‘derived’ from those in the mother countries, with a nuanced positive conclusion.     

Migration,remittances, and children's high school attendance: The case of rural China

This paper uses a large nationally representative survey data to examine the impact of China's rural–urban migration on high school attendance of left-behind children by disentangling the effect of remittances from that of migration. The results show that the absence of adult household members has a negative impact on the high school attendance of left-behind children in rural areas, while the remittances can partially compensate for this loss. The effects are especially prominent for girls and those children from poor households since girls are usually disadvantaged in rural China and poor households are more likely to be liquidity-constrained.     

Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education

The present paper thoroughly examines how one can effectively bridge in-school and out-of-school learning. The first part discusses the difficulty in defining out-of-school learning. It proposes to distinguish three types of learning: formal, informal, and non-formal. The second part raises the question of whether out-of-school learning should be dealt with in the in-school system, in view of the fact that we experience informal learning anyway as well as considering the disadvantages and difficulties teachers are confronted with when planning and carrying out scientific fieldtrips. The voices of the teachers, the students, and the non-formal institution staff are heard to provide insights into the problem. The third part discusses the cognitive and affective aspects of non-formal learning. The fourth part presents some models explaining scientific fieldtrip learning and based on those models, suggests a novel explanation. The fifth part offers some recommendations of how to bridge in and out-of-school learning. The paper closes with some practical ideas as to how one can bring the theory described in the paper into practice. It is hoped that this paper will provide educators with an insight so that they will be able to fully exploit the great potential that scientific field trips may offer. This paper appears as a chapter in: Eshach, H. (2006). Science Literacy in Primary Schools and Pre-Schools, Netherlands: Springer.     

Is children's free school meal ‘eligibility’ a good proxy for family income?

Family income is an important factor associated with children's educational achievement. However, key areas of UK research (for example, on socially segregated schooling) and policy (for example, the allocation of funding to schools) rely on children's free school meal (FSM) ‘eligibility’ to proxy family income. This article examines the relationship between children's FSM ‘eligibility’ and equivalent net household income in a nationally representative survey of England (the Family Resources Survey). It finds that children ‘eligible’ for FSM are much more likely than other children to be in the lowest income households. However, only around one‐quarter to one‐half of them were in the lowest income households in 2004/5. This is principally because the receipt of means‐tested benefits (and tax credits) pushes children eligible for FSM up the household income distribution. The implications for key areas of research and policy are discussed.