Parental resources, parental stress, and socioemotional development of deaf and hard of hearing children

In recent years, empowerment and resource orientation have become vital guidelines for many of the sciences. For the field of deaf education, it is also highly important to look carefully at these guidelines if we are to acquire a better understanding as regards both the situation of the parents involved and the development of the deaf and hard of hearing children themselves. A resource-oriented approach to deaf education has therefore proved especially helpful. If both the theoretical and practical aspects of educating deaf and hard of hearing children are to benefit, research on parental experience with deafness and research on the socioemotional development of the children must always be combined and studied in the context of resource availability. In a study of 213 mothers and 213 fathers of deaf and hard of hearing children, we used an array of different questionnaires (PSI, SDQ, SOC, F-SozU, etc.) to examine the correlation between parental resources, sociodemographic variables, parental stress experience, and child socioemotional problems by way of a path analysis model. The results show that high parental stress is associated with frequent socioemotional problems in the children, thus emphasizing the importance of a resource-oriented consulting and support strategy in early intervention, because parental access to personal and social resources is associated with significantly lower stress experience. Child development seems to profit enormously from a resource-oriented support concept. In addition, the results confirm two earlier findings: parents with additionally handicapped children are especially stressed and the child's communicative competence makes for a more sound prediction than its linguistic medium (spoken language or sign). The path models for mothers and fathers agree in all essential factors. The results are discussed with a view to their meaning for pedagogical practice, and recommendations for further research are given (longitudinal data, more representative samples, cochlear implant).     

Mental health problems of Dutch youth with hearing loss as shown on the Youth Self Report

The prevalence OF mental health problems among youth with hearing loss was assessed with an adjusted version of the Dutch rendition of the Youth Self Report, or YSR (Achenbach, 1991). The sample totaled 202 youth, aged 11-18 years, with auditory disabilities. The prevalence rates of externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and moderate to severe overall mental health problems were found to be 2-3 times higher than in a normative sample. Deaf participants scored significantly higher than hard of hearing participants in these areas. Main-streamed participants scored significantly lower than peers in schools for the deaf or for the hard of hearing. Participants with low IQ scores showed significantly more internalizing and social problems than those with moderate to high scores. The adjusted YSR is recommended for screening in schools and in mental health services for youth with hearing loss for prevention and early intervention.     

The prevalence of behavior problems in deaf children

The appropriateness of the Behavior Problem Checklist for deaf children has been established in various studies. The objective of this study was to use the Behavior Problem Checklist to assess the prevalence of behavior problems in deaf children and to compare these results to earlier studies of behavior problems of hearing and hearing-impaired children. A lesser prevalence of behavior problems was found than in some earlier studies of deaf children. Results were somewhat more consistent with past findings regarding children with no hearing problems. Comparisons by sex found, as in earlier studies, that boys tended to evidence more behavior problems than girls.     

Mental health in deaf adults: symptoms of anxiety and depression among hearing and deaf individuals

Individuals with disabilities encounter practical and social problems beyond those experienced by nondisabled individuals. This extra burden may in turn increase the risk of developing mental health problems. The objective of this article is to disclose the mental health situation among deaf individuals compared to a control sample of hearing individuals. The analyses are based on two separate Norwegian postal surveys, one among the general population (1995-1997) and one among the deaf population (2001). A shortened version of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist was used to disclose the degree of mental distress among the respondents. Three questions common to the studies were analyzed to determine differences between the two groups. Analyses revealed that the deaf respondents showed significantly more symptoms of mental health problems than the hearing respondents. The results point to the need for focussing more attention on the mental health of deaf children and adults. Society must be made aware of the special risks that deaf children and adults encounter with respect to mental health.     

Social-emotional functioning of elementary-age deaf children: a profile analysis

Discussion and study of the social-emotional development of deaf and hard of hearing children, though extensive, has yet to provide an accurate understanding of the differences between deaf and hearing children. Consequently, the goal of the researchers was to conduct a profile analysis to determine similarities and differences between the two groups. The sample consisted of 20 hearing and 20 deaf children ages 8-11 years. All of the deaf children were enrolled in a Simultaneous Communication magnet program. Significant differences were found in two areas: school interest and on-task behavior. Overall, however, data from the study showed few differences between hearing and deaf children. The researchers recommend that current interventions be reconsidered on the basis of these results.     

Sexual abuse of deaf children. A retrospective analysis of the prevalence and characteristics of childhood sexual abuse among deaf adults in Norway

OBJECTIVE: North American studies conclude that deaf children may have a 2-3 times greater risk of sexual abuse than hearing children. No comparative studies are available in the Nordic countries. The present study was initiated to estimate the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse among deaf children in Norway, describe the nature of the abuse, and to examine risk factors. METHOD: A self-administered questionnaire was sent in 1999 to all 1150 adult deaf members of the Norwegian Deaf Register. The Deaf Register includes all deaf Norwegians. The questionnaire, which was also available videotaped in sign language, was an adapted version of a questionnaire used in a Norwegian survey among the general adult population in 1993. The results from this earlier study were used as a comparison group. RESULTS: Deaf females aged 18-65 who lost their hearing before the age of 9 (N = 177) reported sexual abuse with contact before the age of 18 years more than twice as often as hearing females, and deaf males more than three times as often as hearing males. The abuse of the deaf children was also more serious. Very few cases were reported to parents, teachers, or authorities. CONCLUSIONS: Deaf children are at greater risk of sexual abuse than hearing children. The special schools for the deaf represent an extra risk of abuse, regardless of whether the deaf pupils live at home or in boarding schools.     

Improving flexible thinking in deaf and hard of hearing children with virtual reality technology

The study investigated whether rotating three-dimensional (3-D) objects using virtual reality (VR) will affect flexible thinking in deaf and hard of hearing children. Deaf and hard of hearing subjects were distributed into experimental and control groups. The experimental group played virtual 3-D Tetris (a game using VR technology) individually, 15 minutes once weekly over 3 months. The control group played conventional two-dimensional (2-D) Tetris over the same period. Children with normal hearing participated as a second control group in order to establish whether deaf and hard of hearing children really are disadvantaged in flexible thinking. Before-and-after testing showed significantly improved flexible thinking in the experimental group; the deaf and hard of hearing control group showed no significant improvement. Also, before the experiment, the deaf and hard of hearing children scored lower in flexible thinking than the children with normal hearing. After the experiment, the difference between the experimental group and the control group of children with normal hearing was smaller.     

Verbal and spatial analogical reasoning in deaf and hearing children: the role of grammar and vocabulary

The extent to which cognitive development and abilities are dependent on language remains controversial. In this study, the analogical reasoning skills of deaf and hard of hearing children are explored. Two groups of children (deaf and hard of hearing children with either cochlear implants or hearing aids and hearing children) completed tests of verbal and spatial analogical reasoning. Their vocabulary and grammar skills were also assessed to provide a measure of language attainment. Results indicated significant differences between the deaf and hard of hearing children (regardless of type of hearing device) and their hearing peers on vocabulary, grammar, and verbal reasoning tests. Regression analyses revealed that in the group of deaf and hard of hearing children, but not in the hearing group, the language measures were significant predictors of verbal analogical reasoning, when age and spatial analogical reasoning ability were controlled for. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Deaf and hard of hearing students' problem-solving strategies with signed arithmetic story problems

The use of problem-solving strategies by 59 deaf and hard of hearing children, grades K-3, was investigated. The children were asked to solve 9 arithmetic story problems presented to them in American Sign Language. The researchers found that while the children used the same general types of strategies that are used by hearing children (i.e., modeling, counting, and fact-based strategies), they showed an overwhelming use of counting strategies for all types of problems and at all ages. This difference may have its roots in language or instruction (or in both), and calls attention to the need for conceptual rather than procedural mathematics instruction for deaf and hard of hearing students.     

What do we know about deaf clients after thirteen years of ambulatory mental health care? An analysis of the PsyDon database, 1987-1999

Little is known about demographic, deafness-related, and diagnostic characteristics of deaf and partially hearing people with psychosocial or psychiatric problems. A study was conducted derived from data from intake assessment interviews of people with hearing loss treated at a Dutch ambulatory mental health center for the deaf between 1987 and 1999. Both sexes were equally represented. People who were postlingually deaf, hard of hearing, below age 22 years, or above age 65 years were less likely to ask for help than other groups in the study. Men presented more psychiatric disorders, and women more psychosocial problems, especially partially hearing women. The authors recommend stronger emphasis on mental health care for postlingually deaf people, severely hard of hearing people, adolescents, and retirement-age people. They also recommend development of skills for rational and emotional self-expression in the education and rearing of children with hearing loss.     

Sign language for hard of hearing children — A hindrance or a benefit for their development?

In 1981, sign language was declared an official language in communication with and education of deaf children in Sweden. Today, the debate is focused on language communication for hard of hearing children. In order to describe patterns of interaction between hard of hearing and deaf children as well as between hard of hearing children, a longitudinal, qualitative study was conducted. Twenty-seven children, 2 and 7 years of age, participated. Fifteen were deaf, twelve hard of hearing. Video-recorded observations were made at three daycare centres during a two year period. Observations were made in natural interactional settings. The results showed that the use of a language code that was easy for the children to produce as well as to perceive enabled them not only to take part in dialogues and to share experiences with others, but also had positive consequences for their play as well as their social and emotional development. A child-centered and supportive communicative style of the adults, in combination with a positive attitude towards fantasy and role plays seemed to promote the children’s overall development, as contrasted to an adult-centered and directive communicative style where language per se was in focus.     

Social participation of children and adolescents with cochlear implants: a qualitative analysis of parent, teacher, and child interviews

Psychosocial factors, including socioemotional well-being, peer relationships, and social inclusion with hearing and deaf peers, are increasingly becoming a focus of research investigating children with cochlear implants. The study reported here extends the largely quantitative findings of previous research through a qualitative analysis of interviews with parents, teachers, and pediatric cochlear implant users themselves in three eastern states of Australia. We interviewed 24 parents, 15 teachers, and 11 children and adolescents. The findings displayed commonalities across the three groups of participants, indicating positive experiences around the children's psychosocial development with their cochlear implants, but also ongoing difficulties communicating in groups of people and problems related to social skills. Some children had little contact with other deaf children (with or without cochlear implants) despite parents and teachers perceiving such contact beneficial. Children attending schools where there were other deaf children valued friendships with both deaf and hearing peers. Adolescence was a particularly difficult time for some as they struggled with feelings of self-consciousness about their deafness and external cochlear implant equipment and worries around friendships, dating, and their future place in the world. Recommendations for practice and further research are made.     

The Turkish standardization of the Meadow-Kendall Social-Emotional Assessment Inventory for Deaf and Hearing-Impaired Students

THE ARTICLE present results of standardization of the Meadow-Kendall Social-Emotional Assessment Inventory for Deaf and Hearing-Impaired Students (Meadow, 1983), school-age version, for use in Turkey. The SEAI is a 59-item measure for assessing socioemotional adjustment of school-age deaf and hearing impaired students. A sample of 1,097 deaf students (609 boys, 488 girls), age range 7-19 years, was rated by their teachers (275 teachers: 149 female, 126 male) using the SEAI. Data were drawn from four types of educational settings: residential, day, special class, mainstream schools. Exploratory factor analysis of the data revealed three main factors of interest, which corresponded to the hypothesized constructs in the original American standardization: Social Adjustment, Self-Image, Emotional Adjustment. The data suggest high reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the SEAI relative to the original American version. Implications of adapting the SEAI for use in Turkey are discussed.     

The functional assessment of deaf and hard of hearing students.

The study reports on a set of questions added to the 1997-98 Annual Survey of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children and Youth designed to take into consideration the functioning of children in their classroom in nine functional areas. Basing information on 30,198 students, the study describes prevalence rates of reported limitations in these functional areas for deaf and hard of hearing students, compares these to rates resulting from the reporting of categorically defined additional disabilities, and examines interrelationships among the items. Results of school estimates of students' functional hearing abilities are presented. The study's findings suggest a broader range and higher prevalence of functional limitations than would be assumed by analyzing categories of additional disabilities alone. The study's findings support the viability of functional assessment through large surveys. The discussion emphasizes the importance of functional assessment for the provision of appropriate educational services to deaf and hard of hearing children.     

Theory of mind development in deaf children: a nonverbal test of false-belief understanding

Our aim in this study was to investigate whether previous findings pointing to a delay in deaf children's theory of mind development are replicated when linguistic demands placed on the deaf child are minimized in a nonverbal version of standard false-belief tasks. Twenty-four prelingually deaf, orally trained children born of hearing parents were tested with both a verbal and a nonverbal version of a false-belief task. Neither the younger (range: 4 years 7 months-6 years 5 months) nor the older (range: 6 years 9 months-11 years 11 months) children of the final sample of 21 children performed above chance in the verbal task. The nonverbal task significantly facilitated performance in children of all ages. Despite this facilitation, we observed a developmental delay: only the older group performed significantly above chance in the nonverbal false-belief task, even though the younger children were at the average age when hearing children normally pass standard false-belief tests. We discuss these findings in light of the hypothesis that language development and conversational competence are crucial to the acquisition of a theory of mind.     

Deaf and hard of hearing students' performance on arithmetic word problems

There has been limited research into the intersection of language and arithmetic performance of students who are deaf or hard of hearing, although previous research has shown that many of these students are delayed in both language acquisition and arithmetic performance. The researchers examined the performance on arithmetic word problems of deaf and hard of hearing students in the South-East Queensland region of Australia; they also examined these students' problem-solving strategies. It was found that performance on word problems was similar for deaf and hearing students, but that deaf students experienced delays in achieving successful performance on word problems relative to their hearing peers. The results confirm the findings of other studies showing that students who are deaf or hard of hearing experience delayed language acquisition, which affects their capacity to solve arithmetic word problems. The study conclusions stress the need for greater use of direct teaching of analytic and strategic approaches to arithmetic word problems.     

Results of two national surveys of leadership personnel needs in deaf education

Seventy university teacher preparation programs and 100 instructional programs serving at least 120 deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed separately to (a) determine the demand for additional doctoral-level leadership personnel in deaf education, (b) obtain guidance for university leadership preparation programs in deaf education for the purpose of recruiting leadership personnel, and (c) identify experiences that would be relevant to the positions for which prospective leadership personnel are preparing. Data representing 54% of teacher preparation programs and 65% of instructional programs serving deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States evince the need for additional doctoral-level personnel for faculty positions in university teacher preparation programs in deaf education, as well as the need for leadership positions in instructional programs serving deaf and hard of hearing children. Data also provide direction for leadership preparation programs in addressing the leadership personnel needs of the field.     

Perceptions of communication choice and usage among African American hearing parents: Afrocentric cultural implications for African American deaf and hard of hearing children

In a qualitative study employing an exploratory design, the researcher explored the perceptions of communication choice and usage among 14 African American hearing parents of deaf and hard of hearing children. Semistructured, in-depth thematic interviews were used with a modified grounded-theory approach in which themes were analyzed and coded. Four thematic challenges and opportunities related to communication choice and usage were found: (a) oral tradition-nommo, (b) sign and oral-diunital, (c) literacy, and (d) racial/ethnic cultural socialization. Afrocentric implications for deaf and hard of hearing children are explored based on research observations pertaining to the significance of the oral tradition in African American culture and the socialization of African American deaf and hard of hearing children in the context of African American hearing families.