Examination of Critical Features and Lessons Learned for Implementation of a Tier 2 Intervention System for Social Behavior

This article reviews Check-In, Check-Out (CICO; Hawken & Horner, 2003 Hawken, L., & Horner, R. (2003). Evaluation of targeted intervention within a schoolwide system of behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 225–240.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) as an intervention within a multitiered system of support. Although literature has emerged demonstrating successful intervention outcomes for a wide range of students (e.g., Campbell & Anderson, 2011 Campbell, A., & Anderson, C. M. (2011). Check-In/Check-Out: A systematic evaluation and component analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 315–326.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Hawken & Horner, 2003 Hawken, L., & Horner, R. (2003). Evaluation of targeted intervention within a schoolwide system of behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 225–240.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), insufficient attention has focused on the administrative and organizational systems needed for high-fidelity, sustained adoption of these practices to maximize student outcomes. We address this need by demonstrating how to explicitly and systematically embed CICO into the multitiered system of supports by reviewing data, systems, and practices needed to sustain high-quality Tier 2 interventions such as CICO. One school district's systems implementation data and student outcome data are shared highlighting lessons learned during training, initial implementation, and follow-up related to CICO systems in schools. The article emphasizes the roles of school psychologists as well as the importance of collaboration with other educators in CICO implementation.     

Conducting the “Business of Teaching”: Expectations of Non-instructional Tasks of Beginning STEM Teachers

Abstract

Much debate centers on the most necessary elements of teacher preparation programs, with many focusing on practice of core instructional tasks (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kennedy 2016 Kennedy, M. 2016. Parsing the practice of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 67 (1):6–17. doi: 10.1177/0022487115614617.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which may be diluted in alternative preparation programs (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Teachers prepared in alternative programs tend to have greater difficulties with classroom management, instructional planning, and differentiated instruction (Darling-Hammond 2009 Darling-Hammond, L. 2009. Educational opportunity and alternative certification: New evidence and new questions. Policy Brief (1). Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education. [Google Scholar]; Wilson 2011 Wilson, S. 2011. Effective STEM teacher preparation, induction, and professional development. In National Research Council’s Workshop on Successful STEM Education in K–12 Schools. Washington, DC. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/dbasse/bose/dbasse_080128#.UgEMEFPkDDn. [Google Scholar]); however, few studies have examined alternatively prepared STEM teachers’ beliefs and expectations about teaching and learning (Tigchelaar et al. 2010 Tigchelaar, A., N. Brouwer, and J. Vermunt. 2010. Tailor-made: Towards a pedagogy for educating second-career teachers. Educational Research Review 5 (2):164–83.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Good et al. 2006 Good, T., M. McCaslin, H. Tsang, J. Zhang, C. Wiley, A. Rabidue Bozack, and W. Hester. 2006. How well do 1st-year teachers teach: Does type of preparation make a difference? Journal of Teacher Education 57 (4):410–30.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and fewer still have examined their beliefs about non-instructional responsibilities associated with the profession (LeTendre et al. 2001 LeTendre, G.K., D.P. Baker, M. Akiba, B. Goesling, and A. Wiseman. 2001. Teachers' work: Institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the U.S., Germany, and Japan. Educational Researcher 30 (6):3–15. doi: 10.3102/0013189X030006003.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ovando 2001 Ovando, M. N. 2001. Teachers' perceptions of a learner-centered teacher evaluation system. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 15 (3):213–231. [Google Scholar]; Scriven 1994 Scriven, M. 1994. Duties of the teacher. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 8 (2):151–84. doi: 10.1007/BF00972261.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This inquiry examines the expectations of a cohort of STEM practitioners transitioning into STEM teaching positions from an abbreviated alternative certification program; during their first year of teaching and concurrent final internship, the paid interns exhibited heightened emotional responses (i.e. crying, not eating, not sleeping) documented by university supervisors. Researchers utilized Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins 1987 Higgins, E. T. 1987. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 94 (3):319–40.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to provide an understanding of how expectations can produce negative affect, such as anxiety or depression. Findings suggest this cohort of paid interns had expectations about both personal and non-instructional time, planning, school resources, and legal responsibilities incongruent with the realities of the job. Researchers call for further research on STEM practitioners’ beliefs and expectations of non-instructional tasks as they transition from accelerated M.A.T. programs into teaching.     

Structural Equation Models of Latent Interactions: Clarification of Orthogonalizing and Double-Mean-Centering Strategies

The purpose of this investigation is to compare a new (double-mean-centering) strategy to estimating latent interactions in structural equation models with the (single) mean-centering strategy (Marsh, Wen, & Hau, 2004 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2004. Structural equation models of latent interactions: Evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction.. Psychological Methods, 9: 275–300. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2006. “Structural equation models of latent interaction and quadratic effects”. In A second course in structural equation modeling Edited by: Hancock, G. and Mueller, R. 225–265. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.  [Google Scholar]) and the orthogonalizing strategy (Little, Bovaird, & Widaman, 2006 Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2006. On the merits of orthogonalizing powered and product term: Implications for modeling interactions among latent variables.. Structural Equation Modeling, 13: 497–519. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Marsh et al., 2007 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K. T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2007. Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual- and mean-centered approaches.. Structural Equation Modeling, 14: 570–580. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A key benefit of the orthogonalizing strategy is that it eliminated the need to estimate a mean structure as required by the mean-centering strategy, but required a potentially cumbersome 2-step estimation procedure. In contrast, the double-mean-centering strategy eliminates both the need for the mean structure and the cumbersome 2-stage estimation procedure. Furthermore, although the orthogonalizing and double-mean-centering strategies are equivalent when all indicators are normally distributed, the double-mean-centering strategy is superior when this normality assumption is violated. In summary, we recommend that applied researchers wanting to estimate latent interaction effects use the double-mean-centering strategy instead of either the single-mean-centering or orthogonalizing strategies, thus allowing them to ignore the cumbersome mean structure.     

A Theory-Driven Model of Community College Student Engagement

This mixed-methods study develops, operationalizes, and tests a new conceptual model of community college student engagement. Themes emerging from participant observations and semistructured interviews with 30 adult students enrolled at a Large Best Practices Community College (LBPCC) over the 2005–2006 academic year are used to guide selection of Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 1985 ). Intrinsic motivation and self-direction behavior . New York : Plenum .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 2000 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2000 ). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 25 , 54 – 67 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2002 ). Handbook of self-determination research . Rochester , NY : University of Rochester . [Google Scholar]) to frame the new conceptual model. Structural equation modeling techniques confirm that variables and relationships proposed by the new model represent a good fit with data from over 1,000 students surveyed in the Community College Survey of Student Engagement. Findings from this study suggest that community college engagement and related outcomes can be fostered by tuning campus policies, practices, and climates to promote students' senses of belonging, competence, and autonomy.     

Exploration of direct and indirect associations of system-level policy-amenable variables with reading literacy performance

As expectations of the economic impact of educational attainment are soaring (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2009 Hanushek E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2009). Do better schools lead to more growth? Cognitive skills, economic outcomes, and causation (NBER Working Paper, No. 14633). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) and conjectures about successful national educational reforms (Mourshed, Chijioke, & Barber, 2010 Mourshed, M., Chijioke, C., & Barber, M. (2010). How the world's most improved school systems keep getting better. Retrieved from http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/social_sector/latest_thinking/worlds_most_improved_schools[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) are welcomed by educational policy-makers in many countries, a careful assessment of the empirical evidence for these kinds of claims is needed. In this article, we present a methodology that was applied to an international data set. A multi-level model of education was used to present a hypothetical scenario, indicated as the “implementation scenario”. The scenario was tested on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 data set by means of multi-level structural equation modelling. Although we find some evidence for direct effects and some support for straightforward implementation, the overall impact of malleable conditions at the system and school level appears disappointingly small. A theoretical strand of literature that would account for “limited malleability” is referred to in discussing these results.     

Knowledge Exchange,Social Interactions,and Empowerment in an Intergenerational Technology Program at School

This is a sequel to previous theoretical papers (Gamliel, Reichental, & Eyal, 2007a Gamliel , T. , Reichental , Y. , & Eyal , N. (2007a). Intergenerational educational encounters: Part 1: A model of knowledge. Educational Gerontology , 33, 1–22.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007b Gamliel , T. , Reichental , Y. , & Eyal N. ( 2007b ). Intergenerational educational encounters: Part 2: Counseling implications of the model . Educational Gerontology , 33 , 145 – 164 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that proposed a Model of Knowledge in Volume 33 of this journal. The study examines the effects of digital education on intergenerational empowerment and social interaction among participants in the Israeli Multigenerational Connection Program (MCP). The program pairs seniors and children in computer-room activities at primary schools and encourages both groups to benefit by learning from each other. Findings from feedback questionnaires, field observations, and semistructured interviews show that the MCP was successful in building an intergenerational bridge. The flexible structuring of the roles of teacher and pupil contributed to participants' satisfaction with the program, and the intergenerational knowledge exchanges empowered both groups and allowed them to reach out to each other. Implications for educators, both in the community and in mainstream schools, are discussed.     

Associations Between Low-Income Children's Fine Motor Skills in Preschool and Academic Performance in Second Grade

Research Findings: Given the growing literature pertaining to the importance of fine motor skills for later academic achievement (D. W. Grissmer, K. J. Grimm, S. M. Aiyer, W. M. Murrah, &; J. S. Steele, 2010 Grissmer , D. W. , Grimm , K. J. , Aiyer , S. M. , Murrah , W. M. , &; Steele , J. S. ( 2010 ). Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school readiness indicators . Developmental Psychology , 46 , 1008 – 1017 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the current study examines whether the fine motor skills of economically disadvantaged preschool students predict later academic performance in 2nd grade. More specifically, we expand on the current literature and evaluate whether 2 types of fine motor skills—fine motor object manipulation and fine motor writing—predict academic achievement above and beyond the effects of demographic characteristics and early language and cognition skills. Results indicate that performance on both fine motor writing and object manipulation tasks had significant effects on 2nd-grade reading and math achievement, as measured by grades and standardized test scores. Stronger effects were yielded for writing tasks compared to object manipulation tasks. Practice or Policy: Implications for researchers and early childhood practitioners are discussed.     

Lifelong Learning: Becoming Computer Savvy at a Later Age

Senior citizens represent the fastest growing demographic worldwide. As indicated in the Year 2000 U.S. Census, there are 35 million people 65 or older in the United States (U.S.). By 2030, it is estimated that there will be about 70 million older adults in the U.S. alone (Chadwick-Dias, McNulty, & Tullis, 2003 Bean , C. & Laven M. (2003). Adapting to seniors: Computer training for older adults. Florida Libraries , 46(2). [Google Scholar]). With the older population growing rapidly and being increasingly exposed to computer technology, it is important that they become informed of what computers can do for them, (e.g., e-mail, document creation, games, and access to information via the Internet) (Shapira, Barak, & Gal, 2007 Parvate , V. & Speicher , S. ( 2004 ). Learning to communicate via the Internet: How senior citizens develop an understanding of electronic communication: A cognitive design study proposal . [Google Scholar]; White, McConnell, Clipp, Branch, Sloane et al., 2002 White , H. , McConnell , E. , Clipp , E. , Branch , L. G. , Sloane , R. , Pieper , C. , & Box , T. ( 2002 ). A randomized controlled trial of the psychosocial impact of providing Internet training and access to older adults . Aging & Mental Health , 6 , 213 – 221 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The longitudinal study presented employs a mixed method data collection and analysis approach that includes the use of standardized surveys, measures of physical fitness and physiology, observations in the retirement community, and structured interviews. Drawing upon Auburn University faculty in the College of Engineering, senior citizens participated in workshops designed to develop their skills in computing. The potential significance of the project was to create a valid and reliable model for outreach to retirement and assisted living communities and other centers for senior citizens.     

Defining Personal Epistemology: A Response to Hofer & Pintrich (1997) and Sandoval (2005)

Some researchers, including B. K. Hofer and P. R. Pintrich (1997) Hofer, B. K. and Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning.. Review of Educational Research, 67(1): 88–140. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] and W. A. Sandoval (2005) Sandoval, W. A. 2005. Understanding students' practical epistemologies and their influence on learning through inquiry.. Science Education, 89: 634–656. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], argue for defining personal epistemology as views about the nature of knowledge and knowing but not views about the nature of learning. Others continue using a more expansive definition of personal epistemology that includes views about learning. I argue that the scope of personal epistemology should not be decided entirely a priori. If people's views about the nature of knowing and knowledge turn out to be separable from (despite being intertwined with) their views about the nature of learning, then it makes sense to define 2 separate areas of study corresponding to those 2 separable sets of psychological constructs. From some theoretical perspectives, however, empirical results may support the interpretation that views about knowledge are inseparably entangled with views about learning. In that case, excluding views about learning from personal epistemology obscures rather than elucidates the content and cognitive structure of students' views. To be clear, I do not think the community should decide, now, to etch “views about the nature of learning” into the definition of personal epistemology. I argue instead that it is more productive not to converge on a definition until further empirical and theoretical progress points us toward the best way to “cut up [nature] … along its natural joints” (Plato, 1995 Plato. 1995. Phaedrus, Edited by: Nehamas, A. and Woodruff, P. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.  [Google Scholar], p. 64).     

Environmental Problems,Causes, and Solutions: An Open Question

In a national evaluation of environmental literacy in Israel, (Negev, Sagy, Garb, Salzberg, & Tal, 2008 Negev, M., Sagy, G., Garb, Y., Salzberg, A. and Tal, A. 2008. Evaluating the environmental literacy of Israeli elementary and high school students. Journal of Environmental Education, 39(2): 3–20. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the authors included both multiple choice questions and open questions. In this article the authors describe the qualitative analysis of the answers to an open question regarding a local environmental problem. Most participants specified solid waste, open spaces, or air pollution as the main issues. The perceived solutions were generally at the governmental level, including planning, infrastructure, legislation, and enforcement. The authors describe relations in these responses between the problems, their causes and solutions, and between the quality of these answers and the general environmental literacy of the participants. The authors end with a discussion of the special contributions and potential of open-ended questions for environmental education research.     

Age Differences in Adaptive Decision Making: The Role of Numeracy

The primary purposes of the present study were to examine age differences in adaptive decision making and to evaluate the role of numeracy in mediating the relationship between age and adaptive decision making. Adaptive decision making was assessed by the Cups task (Levin, Weller, Pederson, & Harshman, 2007 Levin , I. P. , Weller , J. A. , Pederson , A. A. , & Harshman , L. A. ( 2007 ). Age-related differences in adaptive decision making: Sensitivity to expect value in risky choice . Judgement and Decision Making , 2 ( 4 ), 225 – 233 .[Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Forty-six younger (18 to 24 years old) and 37 older adults (61 to 89 years old) completed the Cups task. In addition, the Numeracy Scale (Lipkus, Samsa, & Rimer, 2001 Lipkus , I. M ., Samsa , G. , & Rimer , B. K. ( 2001 ). General performance on a numeracy scale among highly educated samples . Medical Decision Making , 21 ( 1 ), 37 – 44 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) was used to measure individual numeric ability. Adaptive decision making was operationalized by the Expected Value sensitivity (i.e., the product of probability and outcome magnitudes) across the gain and the loss domains. Older adults had significantly lower Expected Value sensitivity than young adults. In addition, older adults demonstrated significantly lower numeracy than younger adults. Finally, numeracy partially mediated the relationship between age and adaptive decision making. It is suggested that older adults’ declined decision making may be partially due to their declined numeric abilities. Implications were discussed in numeracy education and public policies concerning older adults.     

THREE STRATEGIES FOR DELIVERING CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION IN GERIATRICS TO GENERAL PRACTITIONERS

General practitioners (GPs) need advanced skills in geriatric assessment to be competent to treat the increasing number of elderly patients. Continuing medical education in geriatrics for GPs is heterogeneous, and not assessed for effectiveness. In this study we compared the educational effects of three geriatric post-graduate training methods on GPs. GPs in the health district of the Nijmegen University Medical Centre (The Netherlands) were offered a variety of training options in geriatric assessment: (1) a formal one-day teacher centered conference (TCC), (2) an interactive GP-centered day of workshops (GCW), and (3) participation in a project of knowledge translation, linked to a research project of geriatric intermediate care (GKT). Pre-post measures were taken of the attitudes of GPs towards the elderly (Aging Semantic Differential, 1969), attitudes towards geriatric patients (Maxwell & Sullivan, 1980 Maxwell, A. J. and Sullivan, N. 1980. Attitudes toward the geriatric patient among family practice residents. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 2(8): 341–345.  [Google Scholar]; Rosencranz & McNevin, 1969 Rosencranz, H. A. and McNevin, T. E. 1969. A factor analysis of attitudes towards the aged. Gerontologist, 9: 55–59. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and geriatric competencies (Robinson, Barry, Renick, et al., 2001 Robinson, B. E., Barry, P. P., Renick, N., Bergen, M. R. and Stratos, G. A. 2001. Physician confidence and interest in learning more about common geriatric topics: A needs assessment. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 49: 963–967. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). After training, neither the attitudes towards the elderly nor geriatric patients changed in any of the three groups. The TCC did not show a significant change in perceived competencies, while the GCW and GKT group improved. A formal large group conference is ineffective in improving GPs' geriatric assessment skills, while small interactive workshops and participation in a project of knowledge translation are equally effective. None of the three training methods improved or worsened attitudes toward the elderly in general or the geriatric patients in particular.     

Identifying Possible Sources of Differential Functioning Using Differential Bundle Functioning With Polytomously Scored Data

Oshima, Raju, Flowers, and Slinde (1998) Oshima, T. C., Raju, N. S., Flowers, C. P. and Slinde, J. A. 1998. Differential bundle functioning using the DFIT framework: Procedures for identifying possible sources of differential functioning. Applied Measurement in Education, 11: 353–369. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] described procedures for identifying sources of differential functioning for dichotomous data using differential bundle functioning (DBF) derived from the differential functioning of items and test (DFIT) framework (Raju, van der Linden, & Fleer, 1995 Raju, N. S., van der Linden, W. J. and Fleer, P. F. 1995. IRT-based internal measures of differential functioning of items and tests. Applied Psychological Measurement, 19: 353–368. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The purpose of this study was to extend the procedures for dichotomous DBF to the polytomous case and to illustrate how DBF analysis can be conducted with polytomous scoring, common to psychological and educational rating scales. The data set used was parent and teacher ratings of child problem behaviors. Three group contrasts (teacher vs. parent, boy vs. girl, and random groups) and two bundle organizing principles (subscale designation and random selection) were used for the DBF analysis. Interpretations of bundle indexes in the context of child problem behaviors were presented.     

The Devil is in the Detail Regarding the Efficacy of Reading Recovery: A rejoinder to Schwartz,Hobsbaum, Briggs,and Scull

This rejoinder provides comment on issues raised by Schwartz, Hobsbaum, Briggs and Scull (2009 Schwartz, R. M., Hobsbaum, A., Briggs, C. and Scull, J. 2009. Reading Recovery and evidence‐based practice: A response to Reynolds and Wheldall (2007). International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 56(1): 5–15. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]) in their article about evidence‐based practice and Reading Recovery (RR), written in response to Reynolds and Wheldall (2007 Reynolds, M. and Wheldall, K. 2007. Reading Recovery twenty years down the track: Looking forward, looking back. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54: 199–223. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). Particular attention is paid to the processes and findings of the What Works Clearinghouse evaluation of RR. The suggestion that this evaluation is flawed casts doubt about some of its findings. The authors maintain their earlier stance that RR is effective for many students but do not accept that there is evidence that initial gains are sustained through the primary grades, that RR is an efficient tier two intervention in a response to intervention approach and that significant cost benefits have been demonstrated in education systems. It is concluded that research into alternative interventions that could be implemented at lower cost is warranted.     

Hierarchy and Happiness: The Influence of Emotion on Administrative Job Satisfaction

Administrative job satisfaction in higher education is influenced by intrinsic and interpersonal factors (Volkwein & Zhou, 2002 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2002 , June ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Paper presented at the Annual Forum for the Association for Institutional Research , Toronto , Ontario , Canada . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service Number ED473108)  [Google Scholar], 2003 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2003 ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Research in Higher Education , 44 ( 2 ), 149 – 171 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Pioneers of the “affect as information” hypothesis of emotion postulate that emotions provide value-laden information regarding whether goals, standards, and attitudes are impacted positively or negatively by events, agents, or objects (Clore, 1992 Clore , G. ( 1992 ). Cognitive phenomenology: Feelings and the construction of judgment . In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 133 – 163 ). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . [Google Scholar], 1994 Clore , G. ( 1994 ). Why emotions require cognition . In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions . New York : Oxford University Press . [Google Scholar]; Clore & Ortony, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988 Ortony , A. , Clore , G. , & Collins , A. ( 1988 ). The cognitive structure of emotions . New York : Cambridge University Press .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Schwarz & Clore, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This study explored the relationship between emotion and job satisfaction among community college administrators. Elevated satisfaction scores were associated with positive emotional temperaments and elevated emotional intelligence. Optimistic administrators in good moods were more satisfied than pessimistic administrators in bad moods.     

Analysis of Parent,Teacher, and Consultant Speech Exchanges and Educational Outcomes of Students With Autism During COMPASS Consultation

The significant increase in the numbers of students with autism combined with the need for better trained teachers (National Research Council, 2001) call for research on the effectiveness of alternative methods, such as consultation, that have the potential to improve service delivery. Data from 2 randomized controlled single-blind trials indicate that an autism-specific consultation planning framework known as the collaborative model for promoting competence and success (COMPASS) is effective in increasing child Individual Education Programs (IEP) outcomes (Ruble, Dalrymple, & McGrew, 2010 Ruble, L. A., Dalrymple, N. J. and McGrew, J. H. 2010. The effects of consultation on Individualized Education Program outcomes for young children with autism: The collaborative model for promoting competence and success. Journal of Early Intervention, 32: 286–301. doi:10.1177/1053815110382973[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]; Ruble, McGrew, & Toland, 2011 Ruble, L., McGrew, J. and Toland, M. Randomized controlled study of teacher training in autism. Poster session presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. August.  [Google Scholar]). In this study, we describe the verbal interactions, defined as speech acts and speech act exchanges that take place during COMPASS consultation, and examine the associations between speech exchanges and child outcomes. We applied the Psychosocial Processes Coding Scheme (Leaper, 1991 Leaper, C. 1991. Influence and involvement in children's discourse: Age, gender, and partner effects. Child Development, 62: 797–811. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01570.x[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to code speech acts. Speech act exchanges were overwhelmingly affiliative, failed to show statistically significant relationships with child IEP outcomes and teacher adherence, but did correlate positively with IEP quality.     

Comparison of Direct Instruction and Discrete Trial Teaching on the Curriculum-based Assessment of Language Performance of Students with Autism

There is limited research demonstrating direct instruction (DI) as an effective language intervention for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and developmental disabilities (DD). Existing research has shown that instruction using partial implementation of DI programs resulted in student learning (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and instruction using whole lessons resulted in positive instructional effects for students with ASD and DD (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, it is not known whether DI is more effective than other language interventions. The purpose of this study was to compare DI to an established intervention, discrete trial teaching. Thirteen students with ASD or participated in the study and data were collected using curriculum-based assessment. An independent samples t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in student performance for the group who received DI. Results and their implications will be discussed.     

The positioning of adult learners: appropriating learner experience on the continuum of empowerment to emancipation

This article offers a critical analysis of discourses and power structures and the ways they operate in two instructors’ adult education and ESOL classrooms. The instructors defined learner experience in specific ways and subsequently used those definitions and drew on their learners’ experiences to define their curricula and pedagogy. They conceptualized learner experiences in ways that potentially empowered or emancipated learners from existing power structures. The data presented are part of a two‐year study of different lifelong learning and adult education contexts in the north‐eastern and mid‐western USA. Data sources included survey, interview, artifact collection, and observation methods. Data analysis was guided by a sociocultural theory of literacy development (The New London Group 1996 New London Group. 1996. A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66: 60–92. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Gee 1996 Gee, J. 1996. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in discourses , (2nd edn), London: Falmer.  [Google Scholar], 2003 Gee, J. 2003. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, New York: Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Barton and Hamilton 1998 Barton, D. and Hamilton, M. 1998. Local Literacies: Reading and writing in one community, London: Routledge. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), Holland et al.'s (1998 Holland, D., Lachicotte, W. Jr., Skinner, D. and Cain, C. 1998. Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  [Google Scholar]) theories of figured worlds and identity development, Bakhtin’s (1963 Bakhtin, M. M. 1963. Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, Edited by: Emerson, C. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. 1994 [Google Scholar], 1975 Bakhtin, M. M. 1975. The Dialogic Imagination, Edited by: Emerson, C. and Holquist, M. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1998 [Google Scholar], 1979 Bakhtin, M. M. 1979. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, Edited by: Mcgee, V. W. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1994 [Google Scholar], 1986 Bakhtin, M. M. 1986. Toward a Philosophy of the Act, Edited by: Liapunov, V. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1993 [Google Scholar]) theory of dialogism, and Foucault’s (1963 Foucault, M. 1963. The Birth of the Clinic: An archaeology of medical perception, Edited by: Sheridan‐Smith, A. New York: Vintage. 1975[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 1980 Foucault, M. 1980. Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews & other writings, 1972–1977, Edited by: Gordon, C., Marshall, L., Mepham, J. and Soper, K. New York: Pantheon. 1980 [Google Scholar]) conceptualization of power. One instructor offered her learners a chance to empower themselves, that is, to find gratification by learning to appropriate mainstream ways of acting, thinking, believing, and using text. The discourse that promotes such instructional efforts is predominant in lifelong learning and adult education. In this discourse, referred to at the outset as one of coherence, learner experience, as a resource for language and literacy development, is essentialized as dispositional, meaning that correct or proper attitudes and beliefs are necessary for empowerment. The other instructor practised a reverse discourse, or what Gee (1996 Gee, J. 1996. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in discourses , (2nd edn), London: Falmer.  [Google Scholar]) referred to as a liberatory literacy. She positioned learners to critique the Discourses they encountered, including those they participated in, as movement toward emancipation, toward communicative competence or a critical stance in the world. In effect, learners reversed the panoptic framework and turned the gaze back upon existing power structures. In this case, learner experience was valued for the experiential positioning it offered learners.     

Dialogistic Presence on Community College Websites in Nine Megastates

Use of Internet websites as a communication tool by community college is nearly universal. Exactly what information, functions, and links are offered varies widely among institutions. Research has reported that high school juniors and seniors, prefer to find information on the Internet during their college search process, and Noel Levitz (2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2008, 2009) has repeatedly reported this cohort's desire for electronic-based dialogue with institutional representatives. A survey was conducted to determine the extent to which community colleges incorporate dialogic loops, or two-way communication mechanisms, desired by this key target audience into their websites. A content analysis of the websites was performed using a stratified random sample of 218 community colleges in the nine megastates of California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, North Carolina, and Texas (Grapevine, 2009 Grapevine . ( 2009 ). Distribution of state, by size of state tax appropriations for higher education, FY07. Retrieved from http://www.grapevine.ilstu.edu  [Google Scholar]). Nearly all community colleges integrate dialogic loops on their websites, representing 98.6% of the sample (n = 215). The research also found that when community colleges use dialogic loops, they are also highly likely to incorporate Kent and Taylor's (1998 Kent , M. L. , & Taylor , M. ( 1998 ). Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide Web . Public Relations Review , 24 ( 3 ), 321 – 334 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Kent , M. L. , & Taylor , M. ( 2002 ). Toward a dialogic theory of public relations . Public Relations Review , 28 , 21 – 37 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) other theorized public relations, dialogic-related functions, including ease of website navigation, encouraging visitors to return to the website, and providing current and/or recently updated information. Unfortunately, community colleges are falling short in their public relations efforts to offer the type of web-based, dialogue facilitating mechanisms sought by one of their most important publics—prospective students.     

In Defense of Clarity in the Study of Personal Epistemology

Andrew Elby (this issue) argues that researchers in the field of personal epistemology should beware insistence on a narrow definition of epistemology to guide this work. His argument is a response to suggestions (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997 Hofer, B. K. and Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning.. Review of Educational Research, 67(1): 88–140. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Sandoval, 2005 Sandoval, W. A. 2005. Understanding students' practical epistemologies and their influence on learning through inquiry.. Science Education, 89: 634–656. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that the study of personal epistemology should focus on people's views about knowledge and knowing and not conflate those with views about learning. His main concern is that learners' views about knowledge and their views about learning may, in fact, be conflated and that an insistence on definitional clarity could lead to a mischaracterization of cognitive structures. In this response I argue that clarity in the definition of theoretical constructs does not imply exclusion of views about learning from the study of personal epistemology. Furthermore, given the history of this area of research, failing to more clearly define our constructs makes real theoretical progress difficult.