Superior–Subordinate Communication in the Workplace: Verbal Aggression,Nonverbal Immediacy,and Their Joint Effects on Perceived Superior Credibility

This study examined the joint effects of a superior’s verbally aggressive behaviors and nonverbal immediacy behaviors on a subordinate’s perceptions of a superior’s credibility. Participants (n = 415) from intact classes were randomly assigned into one of the four experiment conditions simulated by four video segments: use of nonverbal immediacy and verbal aggression, nonuse of nonverbal immediacy and use of verbal aggression, use of nonverbal immediacy and nonuse of verbal aggression, and nonuse of nonverbal immediacy and verbal aggression. The findings indicate that superiors who do not use verbally aggressive messages and who are nonverbally immediate were perceived with a higher level of competence, trustworthiness, and caring than superiors who use verbally aggressive messages and who are not nonverbally immediate. In addition, superiors who use verbally aggressive messages and who are nonverbally immediate were perceived with the lowest level of perceived competence as compared to superiors in the other three conditions.     

A U.S.-Chinese Comparison of Affectionate Communication in Parent-Child Relationships

Affectionate communication is central to the maintenance of relational closeness, but it is also subject to relational, contextual, and cultural factors. This study was designed to examine the cultural effects on affectionate communication in parent-child relationships in the United States and China. Results indicated that Chinese fathers and mothers expressed less verbal, nonverbal, and supportive affection to their children than American parents. Both Chinese and American parents expressed affection to their children more through supportive behaviors than through verbal and nonverbal behaviors. In both cultures, mothers engaged in more verbal, nonverbal, and supportive affection with their children than fathers.     

The effects of nonverbal behavior on outcomes of compliance gaining attempts

An increasing number of investigations have demonstrated that the use of certain nonverbal behaviors such as gaze and touch can increase compliance‐gaining effectiveness. A meta‐analysis of 49 studies with a total of 9977 subjects was conducted to determine the strength of the nonverbal‐compliance relationship. The results indicated that there are consistently positive and small effects for gaze, touch, proxemics, and apparel in increasing compliance‐gaining effectiveness. Several different theoretical accounts of these data are evaluated. Finally, the effects of the nonverbal behaviors are compared with those of verbal behaviors. The nonverbal behavioral effects on compliance‐gaining appear to be as strong, and in some cases stronger, than the effects associated with various verbal compliance‐gaining strategies.     

The impact of multichannel message inconsistency on verbal and nonverbal decoding behaviors

This study examines the relative importance and specific nature of the nonverbal and verbal decoding behaviors that subjects use to respond to inconsistent messages. The results indicate not only that inconsistent messages have a greater impact on nonverbal than verbal decoding behaviors but that individuals responding to such messages behave in ways predicted by the double‐bind theory of communication. Decoding behaviors appear to pass through a three‐step sequence which moves from confusion and uncertainty to a high degree of deliberation and interest to expressions of displeasure, hostility, and withdrawal. These decoding behaviors are illustrated and their theoretical implications discussed.     

Doctoral dissertations in speech: Work in progress, 1962

Human communication research has identified and investigated numerous aspects of interpersonal transactions, but has largely ignored the process by which people terminate these encounters. Through controlled observation and laboratory testing, this study sought answers to the following questions: (1) What specific verbal and nonverbal behaviors are associated with the termination of communicative exchanges; and (2) Do these verbal and nonverbal termination behaviors vary according to the situational and relational constraints that bind two communicators. Twenty‐five behavior styles were scrutinized during eighty interviews. Results indicated that behavioral regularity attends leave‐taking—signalling inaccessibility and signalling supportiveness.     

Factors influencing the accuracy of verbal reports of conversational behavior

Subjects interacted with a confederate in video taped dyads and were later asked to: (a) recognize whether certain specific communication behaviors had occurred during the conversation and (b) estimate the frequency with which certain behaviors occurred in it. Subjects consulted memory for conversational behavior more than they relied upon implicit theories to provide verbal reports. Subjects were better at recognizing the gist of a remark than its verbatim content. As Ericsson and Simon's theory predicts, subjects were better able to recognize verbal than nonverbal behaviors (when elicited in verbal form) and were better able to recognize specific behaviors than to generate frequency counts. Subjects were better at recognizing their own than other's behavior.     

Parental Response to Child's Incongruence: Verbal versus Nonverbal Primacy in Parent–child Interactions

Whereas the question of verbal versus nonverbal primacy has gained intensive interest, considerably less attention has been devoted to parental response to children's verbal/nonverbal incongruence. This study comprehensively analyzed parental responses to children's incongruence during mutual interactions. Parent–child interactions (n = 160) in structured joint game sequences were filmed in their homes and analyzed using a mixed multivariate design. Unexpectedly, parents related almost equally to verbal and nonverbal channels. The analysis of a wide range of social and situational contexts, including child's sex, parent's sex, SES, and task difficulty, highlighted their significant effects and delineated the contexts that activated verbal primacy, nonverbal primacy, and incongruent responses. This study provides a composite theoretical framework for the relative dominance of verbal versus nonverbal communication.     

The association of socio‐communicative style and relational type on perceptions of nonverbal immediacy

This study examined how an individual's perceived use of nonverbal immediacy is related to his or her perceived socio‐communicative style, and whether the use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors differs across relational types. Reflecting on a recent interaction, participants (N = 309) completed the Assertiveness‐Responsiveness measure (Richmond & McCroskey, 1990) and a modified version of the Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors instrument (Richmond, Gorham, & McCroskey, 1987). Results indicate that (a) competent communicators differ from noncompetent, submissive, and aggressive communicators across ten nonverbal immediacy behaviors and (b) the use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors differs across relational types.     

Students' perceptions of teachers' nonverbal behavior: Comparison of American and international students' classroom response

For some international students, teachers' nonverbal immediacy may constitute a violation of expectations in classroom behavior. Using Expectancy Violation Theory framework, this study investigated differences in students ‘perceptions of teachers’ nonverbal immediacy by comparing American and international students studying in the U.S. The findings confirmed that (1) teachers' nonverbal immediacy is perceived as more appropriate by American students than by international students, (2) there are differences in evaluations of specific nonverbal immediacy behaviors by American students and international students, and (3) perceptions depended on student gender for some behaviors, but not teacher's gender. Learning was more positively related to perceived immediacy behaviors for international students than their American counterparts.     

Interpersonal communication motives and nonverbal immediacy behaviors

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether an individual's general use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors, as well as the use of specific nonverbal immediacy behaviors, would be correlated with interpersonal communication motives. Participants (N = 211) completed the Interpersonal Communication Motives scale (Rubin, Perse, & Barbato, 1988) and the Modified Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors instrument (Myers & Avtgis, 1997). Results indicated that an individual's general use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors was positively correlated with the pleasure and affection motives and negatively correlated with the escape and control motives, but was not significantly correlated with either the inclusion or relaxation motives. Moreover, a series of significant correlations emerged between each of the 10 specific nonverbal immediacy behaviors and the six interpersonal communication motives.     

The Viability of Using Rapid Judgments as a Method of Deception Detection

Rapid Judgments (RJs) are quick assessments based on indirect verbal and nonverbal cues that are known to be associated with deception. RJs are advantageous because they eliminate the need for expensive detection equipment and only require minimal training for coders with relatively accurate judgments. Results of testing on two different datasets showed that trained coders were reliably making RJs after watching both long and short interaction segments but their judgments were not more accurate than the expert interviewers. The RJs did not discriminate between truth and deception as hypothesized. This raises more questions about the conditions under which making RJs from verbal and nonverbal cues achieves accurate detection of veracity.     

Nonverbal immediacy communication behaviors and liking in marital relationships

This study examined the relationship between nonverbal immediacy behaviors and liking in marriages. Findings revealed that a spouse's perception of their partner's use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors strongly correlated with how much they liked their partner (r = .67), and was reciprocal within marital dyads. Individuals married one year or less and those married more than 24 years scored highest in perceived spouse nonverbal immediacy and liking for their partners. The relationship between nonverbal immediacy and liking was consistent regardless of marriage duration. Findings support and expand on previous research in relational maintenance, nonverbal immediacy, and affinity seeking communication behaviors.     

An application of attribution principles to nonverbal behavior in romantic dyads

This article suggests ways in which attribution theories can explain the interpretation processes involved in understanding nonverbal behavior. An experiment examined attribution choices for nonverbal messages between romantic partners. Couples (N = 63) were videotaped while playing a game of “Trivial Pursuit.” During the interaction, one member of the dyad manipulated his or her nonverbal behaviors to appear positive at one point and negative at a second time period. If noticed, the partner made attributions for these behaviors. It was found that level of relational satisfaction correlated with perceptions of cause for nonverbal messages. In particular, negative behaviors were seen to be more intentional, stable, and controllable, whereas positive cues were perceived to be more external, unstable, and specific as relational satisfaction decreased. Further, satisfied couples were more likely to offer neutral motives for the negative behaviors of their partners. Overall, negative behaviors more commonly elicited overt attributions than did positive or baseline cues, but the number of attributions provided to account for the behaviors increased along with satisfaction level.     

Nonverbal communication and the support process: Interactional sensitivity in interactions between mothers and young adult children

This study investigated the contribution of nonverbal cues to supportive communication in interactions between mothers and young adult children. Current support communication research primarily focuses on verbal messages communicating support or conceptualizes nonverbal communication in narrow ways. Using the concept of interactional sensitivity from attachment theory for direction, a number of hypotheses concerning support provision were proposed in order to develop our understanding in this area. Findings provide insight into the role of nonverbal as well as verbal communication in supportive interaction. Interactional sensitivity—in the form of certain conversational involvement cues (vocal warmth/interest and kinesic/proxemic attentiveness), responses appropriate to the child's needs, and movement synchrony—predicted young adult children's perceptions of mothers’ supportiveness during a conversation about a relationship problem.     

Responses to nonverbal intimacy change in romantic dyads: Effects of behavioral valence and degree of behavioral change on nonverbal and verbal reactions

Various theories of nonverbal adaptation feature behavioral valence (i.e., positive vs. negative behavior) and degree of behavioral change (e.g., very low vs. low intimacy) as critical elements affecting whether changes in nonverbal intimacy are met with reciprocity or compensation. The present study, which utilizes data from 100 romantic dyads, makes comparisons across five conditions: very low intimacy, low intimacy, very high intimacy, high intimacy, and a no change (control) condition. Repeated measures analyses of variance showed that targets in the two high intimacy conditions reciprocated their partners' intimacy change by appearing more nonverbally involved and pleasant and engaging in more verbal intimacy. Targets in the two low intimacy conditions also reciprocated by becoming less nonverbally pleasant and fluent as well as more verbally hostile. However, these targets also used verbal repair strategies, thereby showing some degree of compensation. Targets in the very low intimacy condition also became more vocally anxious and less composed after their partners decreased intimacy. Targets in the very low intimacy condition were abo particularly likely to engage in verbal repair strategies. These and other findings are discussed in light of their implications for applying theories of nonverbal intimacy exchange to the context of romantic relationships.     

Observations of Dyadic Power in Interpersonal Interaction

Power and dominance are widely recognized as fundamental concepts in the study of human relationships. A theory of power, Dunbar's dyadic power theory (DPT), was tested experimentally by manipulating power in interactions with confederate strangers. Participants' verbal and nonverbal dominance behaviors were coded from videotapes of their interactions. DPT proposes that individuals will display more dominance in equal power relationships than in unequal relationships and increasing an individual's relative power will increase that individual's satisfaction with the encounter. The results revealed that the equal-power and unequal high-power conditions displayed more dominance and were more satisfied than those in the unequal low-power conditions but those in the unequal-high power condition were the least affected by their partners and maintained the most control over the partnership's decisions. Implications for DPT and the relationship between microlevel dominance behaviors and the macrolevel impressions of dominant interactants are discussed.     

Nonverbal cue context and episodic memory: On the availability and endurance of nonverbal behaviors as retrieval cues

Two investigations provide evidence that nonverbal cues (in this case, hand gestures) play a role as contextual cues in the retrieval of co‐occurring verbal messages. In the first study, type of hand gesture and processing strategies were investigated as possible determinants of message retrieval. Results indicated that the type of hand gesture was a major determinant of language recall. The second study investigated the durability and persistence of nonverbal cues in providing utterance retrieval. Results indicated that nonverbal cues provided retrieval of messages one week after exposure to conversational stimuli and that once again the type of gesture made a difference in the effectiveness of recall.     

The relationships among manager communication openness,nonverbal immediacy,and subordinate motivation

The relationship between managers' communication behaviors (openness and nonverbal immediacy) and subordinates' motivation were examined. Wharton MBA candidates were videotaped participating in an organizational simulation to resolve interpersonal conflict. Subordinates completed self‐report measures regarding openness and motivation; independent coders rated managers' nonverbal immediacy behaviors. Analysis indicated that communication openness was positively and significantly related to motivation, while nonverbal immediacy and motivation was slightly related although not significantly. The positive, yet tentative relationship between openness and immediacy, indicated that these variables occur together. Results of the multiple regression reveals that openness was more predictive of motivation, while immediacy had a more indirect impact.     

Perceptions of supervisor nonverbal immediacy,vocalics, and subordinate liking

This study examined relationships between nonverbal immediacy and liking, and between liking and vocalics in workplace environments. Subordinates ‘ perceptions of their supervisors’ nonverbal immediacy behaviors were strongly correlated with subordinates’ liking for their supervisors, and supervisors’ vocalics were linked significantly to subordinates’ liking for their supervisors. Findings in this study provide fresh insight into the relationships between supervisors’ communication behaviors and subordinates’ attitudes. The results also identify the cross‐contextual nature of the correlation between nonverbal immediacy behaviors and liking. The findings support and extend existing relational maintenance, nonverbal immediacy, vocalics, and liking literature.     

“Anyone free to chat?” Using technological features to elicit quality support online

This study examines how support seekers can integrate verbal and nonverbal cues in social network sites (SNSs) to elicit quality support from others. Building from sensitive interaction systems theory and verbal person centeredness (VPC), participants (N?=?579) evaluated a SNS profile that contained manipulated levels of directness in status updates used to seek support and nonverbal emotional expression in profile pictures. To capture the transaction of support, participants provided supportive messages in public and private conditions that were coded for their level of VPC. Negative emotional cues in profile pictures increased VPC in private messages, whereas directness in status updates negatively predicted VPC in private messages. Participants produced messages with higher levels of VPC after they viewed profiles that incorporated more features to disclose distress effectively. Broadly, this study addresses whether the content people post on SNS profiles shapes the quality of the supportive messages they receive.