“Everyone rolls up their sleeves and mucks in”: Exploring volunteers’ motivation and experiences of the motivational climate of a sporting event

Research examining volunteer motivation and satisfaction has been criticised for the limited explanation of the cognitive and social processes that may underpin the proposed relationships among motivation, satisfaction, performance and retention (Costa, C.A., Chalip, L., Green, B.C., & Simes, C. (2006). Reconsidering the role of training in event volunteers’ satisfaction. Sport Management Review, 9(2), 165–182.; Cuskelly, G., Hoye, R., & Auld, C. (2006). Working with volunteers in sport. Theory and practice. London: Routledge.). Self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.; Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000a) has proven useful in both for- and not-for-profit domains (e.g., Baard, P.P. (1994). A motivational basis for consulting with not-for-profit organizations: A study of church growth and participation. Consulting Psychology Journal, 46(3), 19–31.; Deci, E.L., Connell, J.P., & Ryan, R.M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organisation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 580–590.; Hollembeak, J., & Amorose, A. J. (2005). Percevied coaching behaviors and college athletes’ intrinsic motivation: A test of self-determination theory. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17(1), 20–36.) and appears particularly suited to understanding volunteer motivation. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.). Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine sport event volunteers’ motivation and experiences of the motivational climate at a large sport event using self-determination theory. The participants were volunteers at the NZ Master's Games held biannually in Dunedin, NZ. They participated in focus group interviews in which their experiences as volunteers at the event were discussed. In general, the findings support tenets of self-determination theory. Participants reported intrinsic motivation toward volunteering but also forms of extrinsic motivation toward some volunteer tasks. With regard to the motivational climate, volunteers experienced support for their autonomy, and felt that their competence and sense of relatedness were fostered. These findings suggest that SDT is a viable framework for examining volunteer motivation.     

Initial psychometric testing of the coach-adapted version of the empowering and disempowering motivational climate questionnaire: A Bayesian approach

ABSTRACT

The present study examined the psychometric properties of the coach-adapted version of the Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire (EDMCQ) using Bayesian structural equation modelling (BSEM). The sample included 780 (M_age = 36.4; SD = 10.8; males n = 698; females n = 54; 28 participants did not report sex) youth sport coaches representing five European countries (i.e., England, France, Greece, Norway, and Spain). The results did not support a 34-item five-factor, hierarchical, a two-factor BSEM, or a bifactor BSEM model across the participating countries. However, the results supported a reduced 19-item first-order, two-factor BSEM model that largely showed approximate metric invariance, but not approximate scalar invariance across the five countries. The pool of items constituting empowering and disempowering motivational climates should be refined to further enhance the empirical operationalisation of the coach-adapted version of the EDMCQ. Advancing the quality of translation-back-translation procedures across cultures and conducting multi-national pilot testing seems warranted as well. These recommendations may help to identify the distinctive aspects of each underlying sub-dimension of the EDMCQ, where coaches are the respondents, and pave the way for further examination of the proposed hierarchical multidimensional factor structure and the cross-cultural equivalence of the EDMCQ for this population.     

Sports’ disciplinary legacy and the challenge of ‘coaching differently’

Be empowering. Be athlete-centered. Be autonomy supportive. These are three related topics currently being promoted by sport psychologists and sport pedagogists in an effort to recognize athletes’ unique qualities and developmental differences and make coaching more holistic and coaches more considerate. This has led us to ask, how likely are such initiatives to lead to coaches putting their athletes at the center of the coaching process given that coaches’ practices have largely been formed through relations of power that subordinate and objectify athletes’ bodies through the regular application of a range of disciplinary techniques and instruments [e.g. Barker-Ruchti, N., &; Tinning, R. (2010). Foucault in leotards: Corporeal discipline in women's artistic gymnastics. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27, 229–250; Heikkala, J. (1993). Discipline and excel: Techniques of the self and body and the logic of competing. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10, 397–412; Gearity, B., &; Mills, J. P. (2012). Discipline and punish in the weight room. Sports Coaching Review, 1, 124–134]? In other words, to try to develop athlete-centered coaches capable of coaching in ways that will empower their athletes without also problematizing the discursive formation of coaches’ practices concerns us [Denison, J., &; Mills, J. P. (2014). Planning for distance running: Coaching with Foucault. Sports Coaching Review, 3, 1–16]. Put differently: how can athlete empowerment initiatives be anything more than rhetoric within a disciplinary framework that normalizes maximum coach control? It is this question that we intend to explore in this paper. More specifically, as Foucauldians, we will argue that coaching with greater consideration for athletes’ unique qualities and developmental differences needs to entail coaching in a less disciplinary way and with an awareness and appreciation of the many unseen effects that disciplinary power can have on coaches’ practices and athletes’ bodies.     

Angular momentum and landing efficiency in the long jump

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether levels of multidimensional intrinsic, multidimensional extrinsic motivation and amotivation could accurately discriminate scholarship status and gender in United States collegiate athletes. Participants comprised 82 male (M age?=?19.89, SD=1.39) and 90 female (M age?=?20.26, SD=1.63) collegiate athletes. Each participant completed a demographic questionnaire and the Sports Motivation Scale (Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N.M., & Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sports Motivation Scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53). Two-group discriminant analysis revealed a significant canonical function correctly classifying 72.8% of the cases into either the scholarship or non-scholarship group. The least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation were the strongest contributors to this discrimination. With respect to gender, a significant discriminant function existed, again with the least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation representing the strongest discriminating variables. The results provide converging evidence that rewards such as scholarships can undermine intrinsic motivation. Further, as well as being consistent with theoretical predictions embedded in cognitive evaluation theory, the results of this study suggest that in addition to undermining intrinsic motivation, scholarships could foster non-self-determined forms of motivation.     

Examining social identity and intrateam moral behaviours in competitive youth ice hockey using stimulated recall

Social identity – identity formed through membership in groups – may play an important role in regulating intrateam moral behaviour in youth sport (Bruner, M. W., Boardley, I., & Côté, J. (2014). Social identity and prosocial and antisocial behavior in youth sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(1), 56–64. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.09.003). The aim of this study was to qualitatively examine this potential role through stimulated recall interviews with competitive youth-ice-hockey players. Twenty-three players (M_age = 13.27 years, SD = 1.79) who reported engaging in high, median or low frequency of antisocial teammate behaviour (determined through pre-screening with the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale [Kavussanu, M., & Boardley, I. D. (2009). The prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(1), 97–117. doi:10.1123/jsep.31.1.97]) were recruited from eight youth-ice-hockey teams in Canada. Interviews involved participants recalling their thoughts during prosocial/antisocial interactions with teammates, prompted by previously recorded video sequences of such incidents. Thematic analysis of interview data revealed all athletes – regardless of reported frequency of intrateam antisocial behaviour – felt prosocial interactions with teammates enhanced social identity. In contrast, the perceived influence of antisocial teammate behaviour on social identity differed depending on athletes’ reported frequency of intrateam antisocial behaviour; those reporting low and median frequencies described how such behaviour undermines social identity, whereas athletes reporting high frequency did not perceive this effect. The study findings highlight the potential importance of intrateam moral behaviour and social identity for youth-sport team functioning.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire in organisational environments

The Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) (Jones, M. V., Lane, A. M., Bray, S. R., Uphill, M., & Catlin, J. (2005). Development and validation of the SEQ. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27, 407–431) was developed and initially validated to assess sport performers’ pre-competitive emotions. The purpose of this study was to test the factor structure of the SEQ in a different environment (viz. organisational) and at a different time point (viz. the past month). A further aim was to examine if the SEQ was invariant across different groups of sport performers. A diverse sample of athletes (n = 1277) completed the questionnaire. Fit indices from confirmatory factor analyses provided partial support for the hypothesised measurement model, with equal or better fit demonstrated than evident in initial validation. The comparative fit index values were above acceptable guidelines for all factors at subscale level. Evidence was also found for the invariance of the SEQ across different groups. Overall, the findings support the reliability and validity of the SEQ as a measure of the emotions experienced by sport performers in an organisational environment during the past month.     

Childhood practice and play as determinants of adolescent intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among elite youth athletes

Abstract

The study empirically tested the postulate of the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP; Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2007). Practice and play in the development of sport expertise. In R. Eklund & G. Tenenbaum (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 184–202). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley) that diversified childhood self-led sport play will beneficially affect future, adolescent intrinsic motivation. Participants were 178 elite youth athletes (age 15.3?±?1.5 years) from several game and non-game sports; 117 were members of the federal state or national junior squad in their respective sport. A questionnaire measured current (adolescent) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of the youth athletes using the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Towards a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53) and their earlier volume of childhood engagement (through 12 years) in coach-led practice and self-led play in their respective main sport and other sports. Analyses revealed that adolescent intrinsic motivation was not significantly correlated with earlier childhood self-led sport activities, self-led play in particular, or childhood sports diversification. Furthermore, considering all different types of childhood sport activities together in multiple regression analyses, they did not provide meaningful explanatory power regarding adolescent intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. In summary, the results did not provide support for the postulate of the DMSP among elite youth athletes. The findings suggest that future research may seek to enable more robust empirical substantiation of the DMSP postulate.     

Initiating technical refinements in high-level golfers: Evidence for contradictory procedures

When developing motor skills there are several outcomes available to an athlete depending on their skill status and needs. Whereas the skill acquisition and performance literature is abundant, an under-researched outcome relates to the refinement of already acquired and well-established skills. Contrary to current recommendations for athletes to employ an external focus of attention and a representative practice design, Carson and Collins' (2011) [Refining and regaining skills in fixation/diversification stage performers: The Five-A Model. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 146–167. doi:10.1080/1750984x.2011.613682] Five-A Model requires an initial narrowed internal focus on the technical aspect needing refinement: the implication being that environments which limit external sources of information would be beneficial to achieving this task. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) provide a literature-based explanation for why techniques counter to current recommendations may be (temporarily) appropriate within the skill refinement process and (2) provide empirical evidence for such efficacy. Kinematic data and self-perception reports are provided from high-level golfers attempting to consciously initiate technical refinements while executing shots onto a driving range and into a close proximity net (i.e. with limited knowledge of results). It was hypothesised that greater control over intended refinements would occur when environmental stimuli were reduced in the most unrepresentative practice condition (i.e. hitting into a net). Results confirmed this, as evidenced by reduced intra-individual movement variability for all participants’ individual refinements, despite little or no difference in mental effort reported. This research offers coaches guidance when working with performers who may find conscious recall difficult during the skill refinement process.     

Moral disengagement and associated processes in performance-enhancing drug use: a national qualitative investigation

Abstract

This study investigated psychosocial processes associated with avoidance of health- and morality-based deterrents to performance-enhancing drug (PED) use. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 64 English male bodybuilders with experience of doping. Resultant data were content analysed deductively using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement (MD; Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Theory research and applications (pp. 71–129). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.), and three further themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication, doi 10.1080/2159676X.2013.766809). These analyses evidenced six MD mechanisms, and all three of the themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication). Subsequent frequency analyses revealed six of the eight MD mechanisms, and two of the three additional themes, were common across the sample. Overall, the findings suggest MD may help athletes circumvent health- and morality-based deterrents to doping, describe a process linking supplement and PED use and detail how some athletes may actively avoid social censure for doping by only discussing PED use with other PED users from within their training environment.     

A closer look at the FTEM framework. Response to “More of the same? Comment on ‘An integrated framework for the optimisation of sport and athlete development: A practitioner approach’”

Abstract

The Foundations, Talent, Elite and Mastery (FTEM) framework was designed through the lens of a world leading high-performance sport agency to assist sporting stakeholders operationalise and research their whole of sport development pathways (Gulbin, J. P., Croser, M. J., Morley, E. J., & Weissensteiner, J. R. (2013). An integrated framework for the optimisation of sport and athlete development: A practitioner approach. Journal of Sport Sciences, 31, 1319–1331). In response to the commentary by MacNamara and Collins (2013) (Journal of Sports Sciences, doi:10.1080/02640414.2013. 855805), it was possible to document many inaccurate, false and misleading statements based on inattentive reading of the original article. We reinforce that: FTEM is a holistic framework of sport and athlete development and not a surrogate for a talent identification ( TID) model; bio-psycho-social components of development are liberally embedded throughout the FTEM framework; and the combined research and applied insights of development practitioners provide strong ecological validity for the consideration of stakeholders looking to explore applied approaches to athlete pathway management.     

Examination of the Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2

The present study was designed to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (Markland & Tobin, 2004 Markland, D. and Tobin, V. J. 2004. A modification of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26: 191–196. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A sample of Chinese university students (N?=?555) was invited to take part in this study. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to examine the factorial validity, and the results supported the 5-factor structure of the Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2. Examination of the 95% confidence interval of the inter-factor correlations suggested that the Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 assesses related but distinct constructs, which provided support for the discriminant validity. Composite reliability values of subscales were all over .75, which suggested that internal consistency reliability of Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 was acceptable. Examination of the pattern of inter-factor correlations between different regulations suggested that the simplex-like pattern was displayed, which provided evidence for the nomological validity of Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2. Examination of the correlations of different regulations with affective and behavioral outcomes provided further support for the nomological validity. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the gender invariance of Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2, and the results suggested that the factor loadings and factor variances and covariances of the Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 measurement model to be invariant across male and female participants. Overall, the study provided initial psychometric evidence for the Chinese-translated Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2.     

Sports Involvement across the Life Span: Expansion and Contraction of Sports Activities

Abstract

Self-determination theory (Deci &; Ryan, 1985) suggests that motivational orientation or regulatory styles with respect to various behaviors can be conceptualized along a continuum ranging from low (amotivation) to high (intrinsic motivation) levels of self-determination. This pattern is manifested in the rank order of correlations among these regulatory styles (i.e., adjacent correlations are expected to be higher than those more distant) and is known as a simplex structure. Using responses from the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier et al., 1995) obtained from a sample of 857 college students (442 men, 415 women), the present study tested the simplex structure underlying SMS subscales via structural equation modeling. Results confirmed the simplex model structure, indicating that the various motivational constructs are empirically organized from low to high self-determination. The simplex pattern was further found to be invariant across gender. Findings from this study support the construct validity of the SMS and have important implications for studies focusing on the influence of motivational orientation in sport.     

The Development of a Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM)

The aim of this research was to develop an exercise-related goal orientation measure in an attempt to further researchers' and practitioners' current understanding of individuals' motivation to exercise for health and recreational purposes. The Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM) was developed to assess individuals' proneness to endorse task or ego goals. Participants included 372 males and females from 16 recreational physical activity clubs in Southeast England. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the two-factor model and demonstrated invariance between sexes. Internal consistency for task and ego subscales was .78 and .88, respectively, while correlations between the goal orientations and behavioral regulations (Markland & Tobin, 2004 Markland, D. and Tobin, V. 2004. A modification to the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26: 191–196. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) served to provide initial evidence for the construct validity of the measure. The development of the GOEM may allow for a broader understanding of the motivational processes implicated in exercise-related domains.     

Coach strategies for addressing psychosocial challenges during the return to sport from injury

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine coach strategies for addressing athletes' psychosocial challenges in returning to sport following injury rehabilitation. Qualitative interviews with eight elite coaches from the Western Australian Institute of Sport (WAIS) in Perth, Australia revealed that coaches facilitated athletes' return to sport from injury through a variety of means, but did not typically provide systematic forms of assistance. Coaches commented that the idiosyncratic nature of the injury experience meant that they needed to apply strategies consistent with athletes' particular psychosocial needs. Such strategies included: (a) coordination of a “team approach” to rehabilitation; (b) fostering open communication with athletes and treatment team members; (c) social support; (d) positive thinking and goal setting; and (e) role models. Analysis of these strategies revealed that coaches attempted to address competence, autonomy, and relatedness needs in facilitating athletes' return from injury. These findings suggest that self-determination theory may be a valuable approach for examining coach forms of assistance regarding athletes' return to competition following injury. Findings are discussed in relation to injury literature and self-determination theory. Suggestions for future research are also presented.     

Book reviews

William J. Baker and James A. Rog (eds.), Sports and the Humanities: A Symposium (University of Maine, Orono, Maine, 1983), Pp.126. $8.95.

William J. Baker, Sports in the Western World. (Totowa, N.J., Rowan and Littlefield, 1982), Pp.viii + 360. $19.95 (hardback).

J. Bale, Sport and Place: A Geography of Sport in England, Scotland and Wales. (London, C. Hurst; Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1982). Pp.187 £9.50.

J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: the Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981). Pp.368. £28.

Beryl Furlong, Carnegie 1933–1983: College and School. (University of Liverpool, 1983). Pp.40. NP.

Gerald Redmond, The Sporting Scots of Nineteenth‐Century Canada. (London and Toronto, Associated University Presses, 1982). Pp.347. £16.50 (hardback).

Steven Tischler, Footballers and Businessmen (New York, Holmes and Meier, 1981). Pp.154.     

Examining the influence of the parent-initiated and coach-created motivational climates upon athletes' perfectionistic cognitions

The aims of this study are threefold. First, we investigate the influence of the parent-initiated motivational climate upon elite junior athletes' perfectionistic cognitions. Second, we examine whether the coach-created motivational climate predicts additional variance in elite junior athletes' perfectionistic cognitions beyond the effects associated with the parent-initiated motivational climate. Third, we test the moderating role of athletes' gender and age in the relationship between the parent-initiated and coach-created motivational climates and athletes' perfectionistic cognitions. A total of 190 elite junior athletes (mean age 15.2 years, s?=?1.5, range 10-18) completed the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2 (White & Duda, 1993), the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000), and the Perfectionistic Cognitions Inventory (Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998). Regression analyses revealed that mother- and father-initiated worry-conducive climates, the father-initiated success-without-effort climate, and the coach-created performance motivational climate predicted male athletes' perfectionistic cognitions. Female athletes' perfectionistic cognitions were predicted by the mother-initiated worry-conducive climate, father-initiated learning-enjoyment climate, and both dimensions of the coach-created climate. Finally, athletes' gender emerged as a significant moderator of the mother-initiated worry-conducive climate and athletes' perfectionistic cognitions relationship. Findings confirm that the parent-initiated motivational climate is a significant predictor of athletes' perfectionism-related thoughts, and provide initial support for the influence of the coach-created motivation climate over children's perfectionistic cognitions.     

Books reviews

Coaching Children in Sport: Principles and Practice. M. Lee (ed.), E. & F.N. Spon, London, 1993. xiv + 311 pp., £16.99 (pb), ISBN 0 419 18250 0.

Clinical Sports Medicine. P. Brukner and K. Khan, McGraw‐Hill, Sydney, 1993. 697 pp., £48.00 (hb), ISBN 0 07 452852 1.

The Physiology of Sport and Exercise. J.H. Wilmore and D.L. Costill, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 1994. x + 549 pp., £40.00 (hb), ISBN 0 87322 693 3.

Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology, 2nd Edn. R.M. Enoka, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 1994. xiii + 466 pp., £40.00 (hb), ISBN 0 87322 665 8.     

Goal orientation profile differences on perceived motivational climate,perceived peer relationships,and motivation-related responses of youth athletes

Abstract

The aims of this study were twofold: (a) to determine if dispositional achievement goal orientation profiles that are reported in the literature would be observed in a sample of youth athletes, and (b) to examine potential achievement goal orientation profile differences on perceptions of the motivational climate, perceptions of peer relationships, and motivation-related responses. Male soccer players (n = 223) aged 9–12 years (mean = 10.9, s = 0.6) completed a multi-section questionnaire containing assessments of dispositional goal (task, ego) orientations, the perceived task- and ego-involving features of the motivational climate, perceived peer acceptance and friendship quality (positive friendship quality, conflict), perceived ability, soccer enjoyment, and satisfaction with one's performance and the team. Four profiles were observed that closely matched those observed by Hodge and Petlichkoff (2000 Hodge, K. and Petlichkoff, L. 2000. Goal profiles in sport motivation: A cluster analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22: 256–272. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), though in the present study a lower proportion of participants exhibited achievement goal profiles consisting of relatively high ego orientation. Achievement goal profile differences were found for all variables except positive friendship quality, with a general trend for those reporting relatively lower task goal orientation to exhibit less adaptive responses. Overall, the findings support achievement goal frameworks (e.g. Nicholls, 1989 Nicholls, J. G. 1989. The competitive ethos and democratic education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  [Google Scholar]) and suggest that further examination of dispositional achievement goals may afford a deeper understanding of social relationships and motivational processes in youth sport.