Soft skills in higher education: importance and improvement ratings as a function of individual differences and academic performance

Three UK studies on the relationship between a purpose‐built instrument to assess the importance and development of 15 ‘soft skills’ are reported. Study 1 (N = 444) identified strong latent components underlying these soft skills, such that differences between‐skills were over‐shadowed by differences between‐students. Importance and improving ratings on these skills predicted academic performance and accounted for the effects of personality on academic performance. Study 2 replicated the structure of the soft skills inventory and associations with academic performance in a larger sample (N = 1309). Examination of mean differences across faculties (humanities, life sciences, hard sciences) revealed higher soft skills ratings in ‘softer’ courses. Study 3 (N = 87) incorporated an IQ measure, which was found to be negatively related to importance ratings on soft skills. Results highlight the cohesive structure of beliefs concerning various non‐academic skills and their significant links to educationally relevant individual differences. Theoretical, methodological and applied implications are considered.     

Memory,IQ and Examination Performance

ABSTRACT Two studies explored individual differences in general memory ability and their relation to performance in a public examination taken at age 15‐16 years in England and Wales. Five memory tasks were used to test both immediate memory and retention a week later. Rank orders of performance across the memory tasks, with IQ partialled out, were found to be significantly related, suggesting some general process. Separate indices of general memory ability for the immediate and delayed tests were highly correlated with each other and also with self‐ratings of memory ability. Multiple regression revealed that self‐rating of memory ability was the only significant independent predictor of examination performance. The results suggest that individual differences in memory ability account for between 10 and 20% of the variance in performance in this examination in groups of above‐average IQ. Possible reasons for the importance of memory in this context and implications for instructional methods are discussed.     

Factors Influencing Supervisee Perceptions of Critical Feedback Validity

The authors investigated supervisees’ (N = 93) memories of critical feedback and validity ratings of that feedback. Supervisees most often recalled critical feedback about their counseling performance skills. Attachment avoidance, the supervisory relationship, and critical feedback of counseling skills and professional behaviors were significantly related to perceived feedback validity.     

The Development of Occupational Sex‐role Stereotypes,Occupational Preferences and Academic Subject Preferences in Children at Ages 8, 12 and 16

This paper reports data from a questionnaire‐based UK study aimed at examining occupational sex‐role stereotypes and occupational preferences of male and female pupils at three ages. Data were collected from 594 children in total (108 8‐year‐olds, 307 12‐year‐olds and 177 16‐year‐olds) who responded to questions that asked for their views on who (males, females or both) should perform certain occupations and how much they would like to have each of the occupations as their career. The children were also asked to indicate their favourite school subject. Analysis indicated that the youngest age group held significantly more stereotyped views regarding who should perform certain jobs than the older children and that, generally, boys sex‐typed appropriateness of occupations to a significantly greater degree than girls, although this difference was not significant in the youngest age group. Furthermore, analysis of the occupational preference ratings revealed significant differences between male and female subjects for many occupations, with higher ratings generally being awarded to stereo‐typically gender‐appropriate careers. Significant differences between the three age groups were also observed in the preference ratings for many occupations, with a tendency for the majority of occupations to be perceived less favourably with increasing age of respondent. Finally, school subject preferences were considered. No consistent or stable pattern of preference emerged for males and females across age‐groups, confirming recent suggestions that gender stereotyping of school subjects is weakening.     

Relationship of teachers’ ratings of kindergarteners’ 21st century skills and student performance

This study investigated the relationship of kindergarten teachers’ ratings of their students’ 21st century skills (college readiness skills) with students’ behavioral and academic performance. Teachers rated the frequency that their students (n = 579) demonstrated persistence, curiosity, affective, and cognitive (e.g., critical thinking) behaviors within their classrooms via the Human Behavior Rating Scale: Brief (HBRS: Brief, a teacher rating scale. The relationship of the HBRS: Brief teachers’ ratings was compared with data the school annually collected (behavioral ratings, academic performance, student office discipline referrals [ODRs], and absences). Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that teachers’ ratings of students’ persistence and cognition behaviors were significantly associated with students’ academic performance. Teachers’ persistence, curiosity, and externalizing affect ratings were predictive of behavioral ratings and teachers’ externalizing affect ratings were significantly associated with ODRs. The results support the efficacy of investigating teacher perceptions of students’ 21st century skills with kindergarteners.     

Validity of the children's orientation to book reading rating scale

The present study investigates the validity of a 4‐point rating scale used to measure the level of preschool children's orientation to literacy during shared book reading. Validity was explored by (a) comparing the children's level of literacy orientation as measured with the Children's Orientation to Book Reading Rating Scale (COB) with a teacher's rating of a child's level of attention and effortful control on the Children's Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ), and (b) computing the predictive validity of a child's COB rating with overall levels of emergent literacy at the end of the preschool school year. This study involved 46 preschool children from low‐income backgrounds; children's literacy orientation was rated during a group teacher‐led book reading. Children's ratings of literacy orientation during shared book reading using the global 4‐point COB scale were significantly correlated with teacher ratings of a child's attention and effortful control as measured on the CBQ. Hierarchical regression results indicated children's literacy orientation significantly predicted children's end‐of‐year alphabet knowledge and overall emergent reading skills above and beyond the variance contributed by children's language skills and family income. The validity of a global rating for indexing children's level of literacy orientation was supported. Educational implications and recommendations for the COB as a component of early literacy assessment are discussed.     

The Role of Supervisors' and Supervisees' Mindfulness in Clinical Supervision

The authors explored whether supervisor and supervisee self‐ratings of mindfulness (N = 72 supervision pairs) predicted perceptions of the supervisory relationship and session dynamics. Only supervisor self‐ratings of mindfulness predicted their own ratings of the supervisory relationship and session dynamics.     

UNDERSTANDING DISPROPORTIONATE REPRESENTATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION BY EXAMINING GROUP DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOR RATINGS

The aim of the current study was to examine mean‐group differences on behavior rating scales and variables that may predict such differences. Sixty‐five teachers completed the Clinical Assessment of Behavior–Teacher Form (CAB‐T) for a sample of 982 students. Four outcome variables from the CAB‐T were assessed. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze variance components across three levels; examine mean‐group differences across outcome variables for student gender, race/ethnicity, and free or reduced‐price lunch status; and examine whether teacher variables predicted teacher‐specific differences in ratings. Results revealed that a significant amount of variance was attributable to teacher‐ and school‐level variables. Several mean‐group differences emerged, and some teacher‐specific differences in ratings across groups were predicted by teacher self‐efficacy for behavior management and teacher age, but not for teacher race/ethnicity, gender, or years of experience.     

Parent and teacher views of gifted children's social abilities

This study compared parent and teacher perceptions of gifted children's social skills and the importance these adults attach to different social skills. No significant differences were found on overall ratings of social skills. However, differences were found on specific social skills. Teacher ratings of cooperation were significantly higher than parents' and teachers valued cooperation highly. Parent ratings of assertion were significantly higher than teachers' and they valued assertion and self‐control over cooperation. Implications for the classroom and home are discussed.     

Cross‐informant agreement of children's social‐emotional skills: An investigation of ratings by teachers,parents, and students from a nationally representative sample

This study examines the agreement across informant pairs of teachers, parents, and students regarding the students’ social‐emotional learning (SEL) competencies. Two student subsamples representative of the social skills improvement system (SSIS) SEL edition rating forms national standardization sample were examined: first, 168 students (3rd to 12th grades) with ratings by three informants (a teacher, a parent, and the student him/herself) and a second group of 164 students who had ratings by two raters in a similar role—two parents or two teachers. To assess interrater agreements, two methods were employed: calculation of q correlations among pairs of raters and effect size indices to capture the extant rater pairs differed in their assessments of social‐emotional skills. The empirical results indicated that pairs of different types of informants exhibited greater than chance levels of agreement as indexed by significant interrater correlations; teacher–parent informants showed higher correlations than teacher–student or parent–student pairs across all SEL competency domains assessed, and pairs of similar informants exhibited significantly higher correlations than pairs of dissimilar informants. Study limitations are identified and future research needs outlined.     

Facilitation prompts and rubrics on higher‐order thinking skill performance found in undergraduate asynchronous discussion boards

Over the past 20 years, researchers have begun to examine data from asynchronous computer‐mediated student discussions in courses. Some results have shown students to demonstrate lower or mid‐level thinking skills, while others suggest students routinely demonstrate higher‐order thinking skills. The authors investigated the relationship between scaffold types and the level of students' thinking skill performance, learning achievement and attitudes, in a two‐by‐two factorial, quasi‐experimental study. Participants included 216 undergraduate preservice K‐12 teachers who were presented with one of four versions of an asynchronous discussion board assignment. Resulting discussion interactions were evaluated for demonstration of low‐, mid‐ and higher‐order thinking skills. Findings revealed students who were given a scaffold demonstrated higher‐level thinking skills more frequently than did students who received no scaffold. No significant differences in learning achievement associated with test performance were found in test results. The treatment variables did significantly affect effect survey ratings associated with students' attitudes.     

Assessment of attention in school children: teachers' ratings related to tests of attention

The paper provides (1) a teacher-administered rating instrument for inattention without confounding the rating with hyperactivity and conduct disorder, and (2) evidence that the ratings correlate with the scores obtained from cognitive tests of attention. In Study I, the first objective was to investigate the construct validity and the inter-rater reliability of the Attention Checklist (ACL) by factor analysing the teacher ratings of 110 Grade 4 children, obtained by using the ACL. The second objective was to investigate the predictive validity of the ACL by examining the relationship between the scores obtained for the participants from teachers' ratings using the ACL and the scores obtained by participants in the lab-type attention tests. The results of factor analysis showed that a single factor labelled ‘inattention’ underlies the 12 items in the ACL. Examining the differences in performance on attention tests, the ‘low attention’ children as rated by the teachers on the ACL scored lower than the ‘high attention’ children on the objective tests of attention. These findings were replicated in Study II, which was conducted to test further the construct validity and predictive validity of the ACL. This time, only those two tests (Auditory Attention and Visual Attention) that had shown relatively poor discrimination between the high and low attention groups in Study I were, again, administered to another cohort of 97 Grade 4 children, as it was our intention to further challenge the reliability of the ACL. Overall, the results of both studies suggest that comprehensive assessment of attention skills should include both ACL and objective measures of selective attention.     

EDUCATIONISTS AND ACADEMICS: RATINGS OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE INSTRUCTORS

Relationships between student ratings, instructor pedagogical training, subject‐matter preparation in teaching field, and length of teaching experience were examined for community college university transfer instructors. Moderate but statistically signficant relationships were found between pedagogical training, amount of subject‐matter preparation in teaching area, and the rating subscale of Course Organization and Planning. Results indicated that students tend to give higher ratings to instructors with pedagogical training, while instructors with greater amounts of graduate‐level, subject‐matter preparation tend to receive lower ratings.     

Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study

This article reports on a large‐scale (n?=?1,056), exploratory factor analysis study that determined the underlying constructs that comprise student barriers to online learning. The eight factors found were (a) administrative issues, (b) social interaction, (c) academic skills, (d) technical skills, (e) learner motivation, (f) time and support for studies, (g) cost and access to the Internet, and (h) technical problems. Independent variables that significantly affected student ratings of these barrier factors included: gender, age, ethnicity, type of learning institution, self‐rating of online learning skills, effectiveness of learning online, online learning enjoyment, prejudicial treatment in traditional classes, and the number of online courses completed.     

Evaluating Counseling Practicum Students

The purpose of this study was to determine significant differences in the self-ratings of counseling practicum students, their supervisor, and practicum assistants using the Counselor Evaluation Rating Scale (CERS). Subjects of the study were 25 master's degree students enrolled in practicum over three successive semesters at a southwestern university. A series of one-way analyses of variance of responses to the rating scale were used to determine significant differences in the mean ratings among the three groups. Findings indicated significant differences for 9 of the 27 items on the instrument, with most of the differences attributed to the students' higher ratings and differences in ratings between students and practicum assistants.     

Student Grades and Rating of Teaching Quality

As part of a Faculty Review, students currently enrolled at the University were asked to rate the quality of the teaching they had previously experienced during their first year. About 900 students in four separate entry cohorts were involved, yielding a total of 28 separate ratings. These ratings were correlated with students’ examination grades. Between classes, there is an indication that rating of teaching is related to examination performance. Within classes, there is a positive and significant relationship between student grades and their rating of teaching only when the teaching is rated above average. The results are discussed.     

Manager Coaching Skills: What Makes a Good Coach?

The concept of “manager as coach” is increasingly popular in the management literature as a mechanism for improving employee involvement and performance. This paper summarizes a study we conducted to evaluate “coaching skills” among sales managers. The study used telephone interviews with managers' subordinates to collect data regarding managers' coaching effectiveness. During the interviews, subordinates rated their supervisors' coaching skills and provided a rationale for their rankings. This study analyzes the ratings and the comments, and outlines the behaviors associated with both high and low ratings of manager coaching skills.     

Consultation outcome as a result of in-service resource teacher training

The effects of learning disabilities teacher training for consultation with classroom teachers were investigated. Twelve learning disabilities resource teachers and 60 elementary school classroom teachers within one school system served as subjects. Four learning disabilities resource teachers received communication skills training, and four resource teachers received conceptual assumptions training. In addition, four resource teachers served as a control group for the study. Each resource teacher conducted three 20- to 30-minute conferences with each of five elementary school teachers. Following the third conference, information was collected concerning: (a) classroom teacher ratings of satisfaction with services, (b) joint ratings of the child's progress toward goals set during the first conferences, (c) the percentage of recommendations implemented, and (d) classroom teacher ratings of joint responsibility, and of resource teacher respect, empathy, and congruence. There were three findings in this study. First, no differences resulting from either type of training were found at posttest for classroom teacher respect, resource teacher congruence, joint responsibility, or joint ratings of the child's progress. Second, training resource teachers in communication skills resulted in significantly higher classroom teacher ratings of resource teacher empathy. Finally, significant differences due to resource teacher experiences prior to this study were noted with classroom teacher ratings of the child's progress, and the number of recommendations implemented.     

Examining teachers’ perceptions of K‐11 students’ 21st century skills and student performance

This study examined the relationship of teachers’ ratings of students’ 21st century skills (i.e., persistence, curiosity, externalizing and internalizing affect, and cognition) via the Human Behavior Rating Scale: Brief (HBRS: Brief; Eaves & Woods‐Groves, 2011) with student performance. Midwestern K‐11 teachers (n = 96) rated students (n = 1,689) via the HBRS: Brief and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997). Students’ academic (i.e., standardized tests) and behavioral (i.e., office discipline referrals [ODRs] and absences) performance was compared with HBRS: Brief ratings. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that teachers’ ratings of students’ 21st century skills were related to the following: (a) Persistence with SDQ conduct problems, academic performance, and absences; (b) curiosity with SDQ emotional symptoms; (c) externalizing affect with SDQ conduct problems, academic performance, and ODRs; (d) internalizing affect with SDQ emotional symptoms and academic performance, and (e) cognition with academics.     

Moral Development and Empathy in Counseling

Of interest to counselor educators are variables associated with helper empathy. The authors investigated the relationship between empathy and moral development. Students enrolled in a facilitative skills development course completed a measure of moral development before making their first counseling audiotape. After approximately 12 weeks of skills training, they were subsequently rated for their demonstration of empathic understanding to client statements on an analog videotape and on a counseling audiotape made for their course evaluation. Empathy ratings of their responses to the analog videotape correlated .61 (p < .001) with moral development scores and .35 (p < .05) with supervisory empathy ratings of their final audiotape and moral development scores. Implications for counselor education are discussed.