Thermodynamical Arguments Against Evolution

The argument that the second law of thermodynamics contradicts the theory of evolution has recently been revived by anti-evolutionists. In its basic form, the argument asserts that whereas evolution implies that there has been an increase in biological complexity over time, the second law, a fundamental principle of physics, shows this to be impossible. Scientists have responded primarily by noting that the second law does not rule out increases in complexity in open systems, and since the Earth receives energy from the Sun, it is an open system. This reply is correct as far as it goes, and it adequately rebuts the most crude versions of the second law argument. However, it is insufficient against more sophisticated versions, and it leaves many relevant aspects of thermodynamics unexplained. We shall consider the history of the argument, explain the nuances various anti-evolution writers have brought to it, and offer thorough explanations for why the argument is fallacious. We shall emphasize in particular that the second law is best viewed as a mathematical statement. Since anti-evolutionists never make use of the mathematical structure of thermodynamics, invocations of the second law never contribute anything substantive to their discourse.     

人的克隆:支持和反对的论证

支持和反对人的生殖性克隆及治疗性克隆的有各种伦理论证,综述这些论证并提出反论证,即可在此基础上得出结论：反对生殖性克隆的站得住脚的主要论证是不伤害论证和人类尊严论证;支持治疗性克隆的主要论证是其对治愈多种疾病的巨大潜力,而且人类胚胎的伦理学地位并不妨碍有控制地利用胚胎于治病救人的人道目的。     

反驳威廉姆森关于二值原则的论证

在对模糊性和连锁悖论的研究中,威廉姆森先后构造了三个论证去表明:否定二值原则将导致逻辑矛盾,亦称"荒谬".本文论证以下两个断言:(1)在一个良好设计且能得到很好证成的三值逻辑中,否定二值原则并不会导致荒谬;(2)在威廉姆森的论证中,某些推理步骤只在二值的经典逻辑中有效,而在某些非二值逻辑中无效;那些论证使用了塔斯基的"真"去引号模式,后者本身就预设了二值原则.因此,威廉姆森的三个论证几乎是直接的循环论证:在假定二值原则之后,再证明否定二值原则将导致荒谬.本文最后列出了据以反驳威廉姆森论证的一些思想,并为它们提供了简短的证成和辩护.     

依郑驳王：王基《毛诗驳》考论

王基是魏晋时期《诗经》学的著名学者,《毛诗驳》是其代表作之一。但由于此书散佚,故学界对此书的研究付之阙如。如果钩稽文献,详细考证其与郑玄、王肃《诗》学之关系,则可以看出：＂依郑驳王＂是《毛诗驳》的基本学术倾向;以史证诗,诗史互证是王基的基本学术方法。然而,间以谶纬之说释诗,对史籍失之详考,也造成了申驳失当之不足。     

论生产力和生产关系的同时性和融合性——兼驳“所有制不能当饭吃”

生产力决定生产关系并不意味着是先有生产力后有生产关系。生产力和生产关系不仅具有同时性,而且具有融合性。“所有制不能当饭吃”以及以前批判过的“所有制越公越革命”的要害正是否认了生产力和生产关系的同时性和融合性原理。     

孔子的知识论

孔子的知识论具有仁智合一、上下通贯的特征，具体表现为认知的目的是为己与成人，认知的对象是意义世界，认知的原则是德性优先与自觉志道，认知的途径是一以贯之与下学上达。孔子的知识论初步确立了儒家的认识论、知识论范式。     

后现代认识论与治疗心理学的实践认识论

后现代认识论的思想内核表现为：无根基、零碎化、建构主义、新实用主义。治疗心理学的实践认识论的基本主张与后现代认识论异曲同工，否认任何形式的知识产生的认识论基础，尊重知识体内的理论与技术的差异性，肯定经验的认知建构，推崇新实用主义。治疗心理学为后现代原理的应用树立了一个典范，为其他学科的后现代转向开辟了新的方向。     

看法与论证

本文的主导问题是:我们为自己已经具有的看法进行论证是否多余甚至虚伪?为回答这一问题,我们需要澄清关于论证的一些误解.论证并不只是为了说服别人.从根本上说,论证是把东一处西一处的道理联系起来,使我们获得整体的眼光,或曰综观.尽管我们在着手论证之前已经有为之进行论证的看法,但获得了论证的看法,在上述意义上,是一种新的看法.即使我们并没有通过论证达到"共识",论证也并非徒劳,因为它可能有助于多样性之间的相互理解.     

Lockean Social Epistemology

Locke's reputation as a sceptic regarding testimony, and the resultant mockery by epistemologists with social inclinations, is well known. In particular Michael Welbourne, in his article ‘The Community of Knowledge’ (1981), depicts Lockean epistemology as fundamentally opposed to a social conception of knowledge, claiming that he ‘could not even conceive of the possibility of a community of knowledge’. This interpretation of Locke is flawed. Whilst Locke does not grant the honorific ‘knowledge’ to anything short of certainty, he nonetheless held what we would call ‘testimonial knowledge’ in appropriate esteem. This can be shown by his careful distinction between testimony and mere received opinion. Furthermore, this distinction is dependent upon a knowledge community which enables hearers of testimony to access alternative accounts. In view of this, we can consider Locke's Conduct of the Understanding in a new light. Dedicated to the autodidact adult, The Conduct directs the learner to reason clearly and well. One goal is to render adult students capable of assessing testimony. The advice given is social in nature. The student must not limit his study to ‘one sort of men or one sort of books’. Otherwise, he faces the sort of cognitive isolation which would render him a mere receiver of opinion. The picture of Locke that emerges is not that of a dyed‐in‐the‐wool sceptic regarding testimonial knowledge, but of a philosopher who formed an embryonic social epistemology embedded within a programme of adult education.     

洛克经验主义认识论浅析

约翰。洛克是欧洲哲学史上著名的哲学家，西方近代经验论的集大成者。洛克经验主义认识论的主要观点有：认识主体能力考察——认识的前提；观念一知识的材料；语言——知识的外壳；从知识确定性到人生确定性。     

Refutation texts enhance spontaneous transfer of knowledge

In this study, we investigated whether refutation texts (i.e., texts that explicitly state and refute a misconception) facilitate spontaneous transfer of revised knowledge to new situations. In Experiments 1 and 2, students read refutation, transfer, and non-refutation texts. Transfer texts were either preceded by refutation (Experiment 1) or non-refutation texts (Experiment 2). In both experiments, comprehension of the transfer texts required activation and use of the correct belief. Each text contained a target sentence that was consistent with the correct belief. In both experiments, reading times of the target sentences were collected and compared to provide an implicit measure of transfer. Additionally, a transfer problem test was also administered after reading the texts to assess transfer in a more explicit way. The results revealed that refutation texts are more effective in facilitating revision and spontaneous transfer of revised knowledge than non-refutation texts. These results add to the growing body of evidence for the applicability of using refutation texts in revising misconceptions.     

“现象学认识论”论纲

"现象学认识论"的一般原理主要由三个方面构成:1.认识是两种存在者即认识者和被认识者的存在关系,认识奠基于人对于存在者的存在领悟(理解)和对于存在者的存在筹划;2.认识是一种现象学的反映一构造活动;3.认识主体、认识产物、认识客体既相互关涉又相互独立,认识产物(包括真理)具有二重相对性.     

古代史传“虚构”说辨正

有学者提出,中国古代史传在坚持实录原则的同时,允许虚构、想象,这种"虚构"包括对具体历史细节的虚构、想象和对一些神怪梦境、传说、传闻的记载。这一见解具有相当危害性。秉笔直书、实录不隐,始终是中国古代史传遵循的原则。史家不允许对历史细节,进行所谓的合情合理、设身处地的想象和虚构。史传中记录的一些神怪梦境、历史传闻等,是当时社会上已经流传、史家信以为真而加以记录的史事资料,它们并不属于史家本身之"想象"或"虚构"。主张史传可以虚构,甚至将史传的"文学性"等同于虚构和想象,都将取消史传的本质特性,为篡改和捏造历史打开方便之门。     

Market Arguments and Autonomy

Intellectual or cognitive, as contrasted with social and political, aspects of the disparities between markets and education are discussed. McMurtry's argument is reviewed. Two engagements of the mind, paying attention and making distinctions, are elaborated, and items in the market place which undermine them are indicated. Acton's pro-market argument is acknowledged. The defence of advertising that it does not violate autonomy is contested, and it is argued that advertising contravenes both autonomy of action and autonomy of the mind. Marketing to children is further criticised for generating an escapist displacement from reality and humanity     

论认识论的嬗变

人类活动的两个基本原则是真理性原则和价值性原则。人的实践和认识发展的历史 ,也就是人类真理性原则和价值性原则发展的历史。人类活动的最基本原则是主体性原则。马克思在哲学上所完成的革命变革 ,关键在于提出了以实践为基础的主体性原则 ,从而既克服了旧唯物主义忽视主体性的缺陷 ,也克服了唯心主义的否认客观基础上的主体性原则。认识论从真理性原则和价值性原则到主体性原则的嬗变是必然的。为此 ,就要研究主体性原则 ,并通过研究而确立有利于人们认识和实践的合理的主体性原则。这样 ,才能维护人类的整体的现实利益。     

论库萨的三一认识思想

库萨的三一认识论可以追溯到古希腊哲学。巴门尼德提出了"思维与存在同一"的思想,恩培多克勒将其发展为有二元论倾向的"同类相知"理论。柏拉图区分理念和现象的同时也区分了灵魂和身体、思维和思维对象,这种彻底的二元区分与之前的感知理论依据的"思维与存在同一"相冲突。亚里士多德的实体说用"潜在的现实化"将被割裂的主客体联系起来。库萨在此基础上并结合基督教三位一体理论,把感官、理性、理智、上帝连接起来,构筑了一条从感性到上帝的寻觅真理之路,并且从理性主义过渡到神秘主义。因为上帝在人的认识能力之外,从理智到上帝的超越要依靠启示,理性最终要让位于信仰。