An examination of ethnic incongruence in school‐based psychological services and diversity‐training experiences among school psychologists

The current study examined the prevalence of ethnic incongruence in three school psychological services: assessment, consultation, and counseling; the prevalence of diversity training among school psychologists; and practitioners' attitudes about their training experiences. A mail survey was sent to a random sample of 500 school psychologists drawn from the 1999 membership roster of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Ethnic incongruence, defined as ethnic differences between a professional and a client, was commonly reported for assessment, consultation, and counseling cases. Diversity training was reported by 90.7% of participating school psychologists in the form of graduate coursework, internship experiences, or continuing education. Though most respondents rated their training experiences positively, improvements were suggested. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 419–432, 2005.     

Traditional Assessment,Consultation, and Intervention Practices: Urban School Psychologists' Use,Importance, and Competence Ratings

This article examines the practices of school psychologists who work within an urban school district. Participants (N = 86) rated 20 specific practices on their current use, their importance, and their level of competence. Overall the school psychologists rated their involvement in traditional assessment activities as significantly more common than consultation/collaboration and prevention/intervention; however, they indicated consultation and prevention/intervention activities as significantly more valued than traditional assessment practices. Participants also noted prevention, intervention, and functional assessment as their top priorities for professional development. Thus, a practice gap was noted with regard to what this group of school psychologists' value and what they do. Results are discussed within the context of current educational reform initiatives.     

Contemporary practices in school psychology: A national survey of roles and referral problems

Eight hundred school psychologists who were members of the National Association of School Psychologists were mailed a survey designed to assess their roles, types of referrals, consultation practices, and crisis team involvement. Three hundred seventy (49%) completed surveys were analyzed. Assessment was the most common role followed distantly by consultation. Academic problems were the most frequent type of referral with reading being the most common concern. Of the behavioral referrals, externalizing problems were more frequent than internalizing concerns. Behavioral consultation was the most common model used but less than half of respondents follow all of the stages. Only forty percent use an evaluative component in consultation. A majority of the informants had some involvement with their schools' crisis team. Implications of these findings for training, professional development, and future roles are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

National survey of career development functions of practicing school psychologists

Three hundred sixty-four (364) practicing school psychologists were surveyed about involvement in career development functions. Responses were analyzed using multiple regressions and correlated t-tests. Findings reveal school psychologists to be interested in career development functions, with particular interest in career counseling; they are minimally involved in career assessment, counseling, and consultation. Ninety percent of respondents felt unprepared to participate in vocationally related job responsibilities. School psychology should prepare its members for involvement in career development. Means of accomplishing greater participation were discussed.     

The Blueprint I revisited: Training and practice in school psychology

In 1984, the National School Psychology Inservice Training Network (NSPITN) published School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice (Blueprint I), which recognized that America's public schools were troubled and focused on how school psychology could help with a transformation; the role of school psychologists was divided into 16 practice domains. In 1997, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) published a successor, School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II (Blueprint II), which credits the first edition with having “driven much of the progress in school psychology.” To better understand the impact of the Blueprint I, this study analyzes responses from Nebraska and Iowa school psychologists about it, finding that doctoral-level respondents believed that they were more competently trained than subdoctoral school psychologists in the research domain; quality of training was rated higher by respondents receiving degrees after 1984 in class management, classroom organization and social structures, interpersonal communication and consultation, legal/ethical and professional issues, multicultural concerns, parental involvement, research, and systems development and planning. Analyses revealed numerous areas of congruence and dissonance between training and practice. Respondents reported a preference to decrease the amount of time spent in assessment and increase the time spent in all other domains (except basic academic skills). The relevance to the Blueprint II and the implications for school psychology training and practices are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Are school psychologists reform-minded?

This study examined perceptions of reform in the role and function of school psychologists advocated by Reschly (1988). A national sample of 137 psychologists endorsed integrated features of traditional practice and reform on assessment activities and classification issues, but they more strongly favored reform positions on activities associated with consultation/intervention and professional/training issues. The use of and preference for curriculum-based assessment strongly characterized psychologists more favorably disposed toward reform. Reform-minded psychologists included administrators and trainers as well as practitioners who receive relatively few new referrals per year. However, psychologists who conducted few evaluations appeared to do more counseling than consultation or classroom intervention. Discussion focuses on understanding psychologists' conceptualization of their current role and on identifying the characteristics and activities of the more reform-minded. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Computer-Mediated Peer Support of Consultation: Case Description and Evaluation

In this article we describe the design, implementation, and outcomes of a computer-mediated peer support group. Four school psychologists used an enhanced version of electronic mail (e-mail) referred to as groupware. The purpose of the e-mail messages was to provide two of the school psychologists with support in regard to their consultations with teachers. During the 15-week project, the school psychologists exchanged 65 e-mail messages. Their perceptions of the learning and social outcomes of the group were assessed. The school psychologists indicated that the majority of the messages contributed to their becoming more knowledgeable about consultation and knowing what support to offer the other school psychologists. Overall, the computer-mediated group experience seemed to meet or exceed the school psychologists' preproject high expectations in regard to learning about classroom-based interventions and receiving social support. Moreover, they also perceived their computer-mediated group to be highly cohesive.     

Medical diagnostic consultation concerning mental retardation: An analogue study of school psychologists' attitudes

Recent research of relevance to school psychologists suggests that the cause, or etiology, of mental retardation can be established by medical diagnosticians in approximately one‐half of cases. In the current study, 109 practicing school psychologists considered a hypothetical case of an elementary student with mental retardation and indicated their attitudes toward the use of medical consultation. School psychologists were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions defined by the amount of information about medical diagnostic consultations they received: (a) no information, (b) guidelines from the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) calling for medical consultation in cases of developmental delay, or (c) AAN guidelines plus a concise summary of research on etiology, prevention, and mental retardation. School psychologists with more than 10 years of experience evidenced a more favorable attitude toward medical diagnostic consultation when provided more information, whereas their less experienced colleagues demonstrated no such pattern. This finding, together with others derived from participants' responses, is discussed regarding school psychologists' practice and training. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The multiplier effect: A strategy for the continuing education of school psychologists

Twenty-two school psychologists participated in a year long institute designed to test the use of a multiplier effect in the continuing professional development of school psychologists in Michigan. Participants, representing 12 geographic regions, attended six days of in-service meetings on the topics of behavior modification strategies, models of continuing education, affective education, life-space interviewing and consultation strategies. Participants were then responsible for conducting two, one-day workshops in their regions on topics discussed in the institute. The impact of the intervention model was evaluated using personal interviews, questionnaires and tape recordings. Results indicated that 550 school psychologists attended two in-service meetings with generally favorable reactions. Specific evaluative data, conclusions and suggestions for modification of future models are presented.     

A survey of school psychologists' knowledge and training in child psychopharmacology

A national sample of 320 school‐based, practicing members of the National Association of School Psychologists provided information on (a) their caseloads receiving medications, (b) types of school psychopharmacology training opportunities available and perceptions of their current training in child psychopharmacology, and (c) information about consultative efforts in monitoring medication effects on school functioning. Results indicated that almost one of every four cases seen by survey participants were being treated with psychotropic medications; nearly all respondents have engaged in consultation related to medication evaluations. Professional workshops and independent reading were the most utilized training opportunities, and participant responses indicated an overwhelming need for basic educational training to improve knowledge and consultation in this area. Implications of these findings on training in evidence‐based interventions and current practice are discussed as school psychologists experience legislative pressure to diminish their collaborative involvement in medication treatment consideration and evaluation. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 623–633, 2006.     

Supporting New Teachers Through Consultee-Centered Group Consultation

New teachers are often unprepared for the emotional, physical, social, and psychological demands of teaching. Traditional staff development models may not be well suited to meet the needs of these teachers. However, school psychologists and counselors are in an excellent position to facilitate the professional and problem-solving skills of new teachers, using Caplan's consultee-centered group consultation model. In this project, 5 beginning elementary school teachers participated in a biweekly consultation group for 8 months. We found that the new teachers' emphasis on 'self as teacher' was evident throughout the year and that the consultation groups provided the teachers with a forum for engaging in meaningful professional dialogue with colleagues. The findings presented include an example of the consultative problem-solving process, a content analysis of the problems presented, and the teachers' impressions of the impact of the group. Finally, suggestions are provided for school consultants.     

Meeting the Challenges of the Future: Integrating Public Health and Public Education for Mental Health Promotion

The 2002 Future of School Psychology Conference called for reform of current models of professional school psychology, including a paradigm shift toward a public health model of practice. This article explores the role of school psychologists in efforts to achieve an integrated public health and public education model for delivering comprehensive school-based mental health services. Building on expertise as psychological and educational consultants, school psychooogists can play a unique role in facilitating the necessary systemic reform and capacity building for comprehensive mental health service delivery. This revised role requires redefining school-based consultation to include consultation for capacity building, and rethinking professional preparation to ensure expertise in public health models, inter-agency and interdisciplinary collaboration, participatory action research, and comprehensive service delivery.     

The impact of PL 94-142 on the practice of school psychology: A national survey

This paper presents the results of a national survey of school psychologists to determine the impact of PL 94-142 on the role of the school psychologist. Data were based on responses to 856 surveys by practicing school psychologists who were selected randomly from the NASP membership list during 1979-80. The results suggested that this legislation has had remarkably little impact on the evaluation procedures used or on the school psychologist's role. The two clear changes that have occurred may have negative implications for psychological services (e.g., an increased focus on handicapped children and increased paperwork). It was found that many school psychologists are involved in evaluation, but do not have time to be involved in the IEP process, or to provide follow-up consultation, or direct intervention for prevention and/or therapeutic purposes. This problem was exacerbated in districts that had ratios of greater than 1,000 to 1. Despite these problems, many respondents view the legislation in positive terms, and feel it has helped to enlarge the scope of practice.     

Employment-related differences between male and female school psychologists

A total of 636 full-time school psychologist practitioners in Pennsylvania were surveyed and asked to complete a demographic data form and to estimate the actual percentage of time they spent in assessment, counseling, consultation, research, clerical tasks, and administrative tasks, and the amount of time they desired to spend in each of these roles. No statistically significant differences were found between male and female school psychologists in actual time spent in various roles or the time desired to be spent in various roles. Male school psychologists were found to work longer contract lengths and to make more money than their female counterparts. When monthly salaries were compared (adjusted for differences in contract length), statistically significant salary differences between male and female school psychologists were found.     

Culturally Responsive Consultation Among Practicing School Psychologists

ABSTRACT

School-based consultation has garnered increasing attention relevant to culturally responsive practice in school psychology. Although prior research has investigated school psychologists’ experiences with supporting culturally diverse youth through school-based consultation, few studies have utilized an established framework to understand school psychologists’ experiences. We utilized specific components of Ingraham’s Multicultural School Consultation framework to examine fifteen school psychologists’ experiences with providing culturally responsive consultation. Constant comparative analysis revealed the various strategies used by practitioners to support culturally diverse students throughout the consultation process (e.g., involving multiple people in decision-making, using non-confrontational approaches to educate school personnel about cultural dynamics, providing messages of support and encouragement to diverse students and families) and the socio-contextual barriers to their practice (e.g., cultural minimization, lack of administrative support). Implications for research, training, and school-based practice are discussed.     

Actual/Desired role functioning,perceived control over role functioning,and job satisfaction among school psychologists

This study utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and a demographic data form to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and actual/desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning among a population of school psychologists. Results indicated that school psychologists spend more time in assessment activities than they desire to and less time in consultation, counseling, and research than they desire to. Both discrepancy between actual and desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning were found to be significantly associated with job satisfaction. Role function and perceived control variables combined accounted for almost half of the job satisfaction variance. Four role function variables emerged as significant predictors of job satisfaction: discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in assessment, discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in clerical activities, actual time spent in research, and discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in research. Results are discussed in terms of their practical significance for practicing school psychologists.     

A replication of a survey of school psychologists: Congruence between training,practice, preferred role,and competence

The present study is a replication of an earlier effort by Meacham and Peckham (1978) that surveyed practicing school psychologists to obtain their perceptions regarding the congruency between the role functions of assessment, interpretation, remediation, consultation, change agent, and research and training, present job, preferred job, and competence. Overall, results indicate a greater congruency between the training and practice of school psychologists. Other findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the training and practice of school psychology.     

Consultation in school psychology: Changes from 1981 to 1984

In order to assess changes in consultation activities by practicing school psychologists, questionnaires were sent to a nationwide sample of practitioners engaging in consultation on a regular basis. Responses were received from 225 school psychologists, for a return rate of 58%. These responses were compared to their previous responses in 181-82 and revealed a significant increase in both the actual amount of time spent in consultation and the amount of time desired for consultation. School psychologist to student ratio was significantly lower, as was overall satisfaction with the profession, compared to the 1981-82 results. Sex differences were found for perceived competency in teacher consultation. The results and their implications for the field of school psychology are discussed.     

School-linked and school-based health services: A renewed call for collaboration between school psychologists and medical professionals

Health care and education reform provide opportunities to build systems that promote rather than retard collaboration between school psychologists and medical professionals. School-linked and school-based health services (SLSBHS) are a family of approaches that provide medical, social, and mental health services to students through school settings. These services have potential to provide more than acute care or first-aid services. SLSBHS provide medical care to uninsured children, students with chronic medical needs, at-risk children, and the overall school population. However, there are usually not enough funds to hire new staff members in most school districts. Expanding the roles of current school staff, promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, and implementing creative fiscal strategies are necessary to develop SLSBHS. Interdisciplinary collaboration may be the largest hurdle to developing SLSBHS. As such, school psychologists and medical professionals may need to rethink their professional roles and develop new techniques of interdisciplinary consultation to fulfill the potential of SLSBHS.