Metacognition as a Basis for Learning Support Software

In order to understand the task of instructional designers who produce learning support software, this paper reviews the influence of learning theory on instructional design, recent developments in computer technology, and the evolving role of the instructor as a facilitator of higher-order thinking. Constructivist principles of learning and an appreciation for the fact that the learner must become more independent and skilled in metacognitive self-assessment and self-management are fundamental to this changing role. Two cognitive tools that provide learner/user support for personal construction of knowledge systems are “MindMap” and “Learning FourMat Processor.” These tools are examined in the light of current learning theory and a recent study comparing the work of novice and expert writers using different forms of performance support. Recommendations are made for the development of a more complete set of cognitive tools that enables users to construct their own multimedia knowledge systems based on higher-order thinking and problem solving.     

概念同化、改变和迁移在教学中的应用

学习是对现有知识结构的丰富和重构。丰富是现有知识对新知识的同化过程,重构则是概念改变,表现为理论的修正和改变。上述学习理论运用于教学中的一个重要方面就是设计和组织学习材料。学习材料具有多种形式,包含着与学习者固着观念相联系的同化点,能引发学习者的认知冲突,或显示新知识的特性导致概念改变,并且能提供新的情景便于学习者的知识迁移。因此综合设计和组织学习材料是促进学习者对知识进行有意义建构,提高其学习能力的关键。     

10步骤的10~+问题——与《综合学习设计》作者的对话

国际教学设计研究自20世纪90年代起开始转型,其中心也不再仅仅局限于教学设计研究的发源地美国。本访谈将要介绍的就是来自荷兰的当代国际著名教学设计专家和教育技术专家范梅里恩伯尔和基尔希纳,着重了解他们团队提出并持续20余年不断完善的"综合学习设计及其十个步骤",具体体现在《综合学习设计:四元素十步骤系统方法》一书中。两位作者曾经非常深刻地概括过这一理论的特质是:聚焦综合学习,以学习理论为厚实基础并采用高度灵活的设计方法,以有效解决当前教育培训领域的三大痼疾:学习任务分割化、学习内容碎片化和学习迁移悖论,并以此为教学设计的复兴作出贡献,回应瞬息万变知识社会的教育需求。综合学习设计代表了一种新的教学设计方法论,值得注意的是,梅里尔的"五星教学设计(首要教学原理)"和范梅里恩伯尔等的"综合学习设计(四元教学设计)"不约而同地于2002年发表在国际教育技术权威刊物《教育技术研究与发展》上。严格地说,它们不是一两个个别的理论或者模型,而是一股有着共同旨趣和追求、前景广阔的教学设计新潮流。由盛群力主持翻译的《综合学习设计:四元素十步骤系统方法》(下文简称《综合学习设计》)已经由福建教育出版社正式出版(当代前沿教学设计译丛,2012年7月)。正像梅里尔对这一理论做出的评价那样:"《综合学习设计》一书是设计有效教学的绝佳宝典,综合学习设计有助于教学达到有效果、有效率和有学习参与热诚的境界。"十个步骤融合了"问题教学"与"直导教学"的各自优势,对当前不尚空谈、务实探索的各种已有成果进行了绝妙综合。美国南加州大学洛杉矶分校认知技术研究中心教授、著名教育技术专家理查德.克拉克曾经这样感叹道:"《综合学习设计》代表了一种非常综合的方法,即既有最佳实践的依据,又有可靠研究的支撑,体现了有关学习、培训与迁移研究的现有水准,任何涉足教学、公司培训或者培训系统管理的人士阅读本书都是明智的选择。"我们则认为,《综合学习设计》系统反映了当代国际教学设计一流研发团队的最新应用成果,是将教育技术先进生产力转化为教学实践效益的可贵尝试。如果您立志为面向完整任务、聚焦解决问题与实现学习迁移而开展教学;如果您希冀了解教学设计潮流,开发创生性人力资源,探索促进专业成长的道路,那么,就请和我们一起"浸入"!杰罗姆.J.G.范梅里恩伯尔(Jeroen J.G.Van Merrinboer,1959-)现任荷兰马斯特里赫特大学教育发展与研究系学习与教学方向教授,曾多年担任荷兰开放大学教育技术研究中心主任和荷兰十所大学联校教育研究中心主任。范梅里恩伯尔在特温特大学获得教学技术学方向的哲学博士学位,在认知架构与教学、综合学习的教学设计、教学设计的整体化方法和适应性数字学习应用等方面颇有专长。他已经发表了150余篇学术论文,且担任《学习与教学》等数家学术刊物的编委。他因出版代表作《掌握综合认知能力》(1997)和提出"综合学习设计"(或称"四元教学设计")被公认是世界教育技术研究领域的一位领军人物,并曾获得美国教育传播与技术协会颁发的"国际贡献奖"。保罗.A.基尔希纳(Paul A.Kirschner,1951-)系荷兰开放大学学习科学与技术中心(CELSTEC)教育心理学教授,同时也是学习与认知研究项目负责人、荷兰国家终身学习实验室(NeLLL)科研主任。他在荷兰开放大学获得哲学博士学位。作为一位国际知名的学者,基尔希纳的研究擅长领域包括终身学习、计算机支持的协作学习、数字化或其他创新性学习环境的设计、开放教育资源、教育媒体应用、教师远程学习材料开发、认知能力的实际应用、设计与开发电子学习环境和工作环境以及信息技术教育系统的创新与应用等。     

Linking learning theories and learning difficulties

Abstract

Developing effective strategies to support secondary students with learning difficulties is important because they are the most prevalent students with special educational needs in contemporary mainstream classes. A learner‐focused instructional approach that incorporates meaning‐making, student control, and acceptance of errors, combined with explicit instruction will facilitate the learning of students with learning difficulties. This approach derives from an instructional setting model of learning difficulties, as distinct from a deficit model or an inefficient learner model, and draws on principles from constructivist learning theory and whole language theory. Guided by this model and these principles, secondary teachers can design curricula and classroom environments that support the needs of all students.     

梅耶多媒体教学设计原理的生成与架构

多媒体学习理论是一个贯通了学习理论与教学理论的科学体系。作为学习理论的多媒体学习认知理论基于双重编码理论、工作记忆模型以及生成加工理论,解释了学习者通过加工语词与画面所呈现的材料来建构知识的学习机制,属于解释性理论;作为教学理论的多媒体教学设计理论发展出一系列教学设计应遵循的原则,为教育实践提供了具有处方性意义的行动指南,属于处方性理论。解释性的学习理论为处方性的教学理论提供了扎实可靠的科学基础。在多媒体学习研究从学习理论向教学理论转化的过程中,多媒体教学设计理论是实现跃迁的关键环节,而认知负荷理论则是理论跃迁成功的关键变量。基于认知负荷理论,梅耶提出多媒体学习认知负荷三元模型,包括必要认知加工、外来认知加工和生成性认知加工。围绕这三类认知加工,梅耶及其同事进行了大量的实验研究,最终确定了12项与多媒体学习认知理论及其前提假设保持高度逻辑一贯性的多媒体教学设计原则。这些原则都是经得起实践检验的,但教学设计人员在应用的过程中,应明确各项原则的问题情境、适用范围等边际条件。     

New Model,New Strategies: Instructional design for building online wisdom communities

We discuss the development of an instructional design model, WisCom (Wisdom Communities), based on socio‐constructivist and sociocultural learning philosophies and distance education principles for the development of online wisdom communities, and the application and evaluation of the model in an online graduate course in the USA. The WisCom model aims to facilitate transformational learning by fostering the development of a wisdom community, knowledge innovation, and mentoring and learner support in an online learning environment, based on a “Cycle of Inquiry” module design, and a “Spiral of Inquiry” program design. Extending beyond current instructional design practice, WisCom provides both a new model for teaching that builds upon the inherent capacity of networked communication to support the growth and intellectual development of communities of practice, and a new model of learning where learners engage in the process of scholarly inquiry that supports individual and collective learning. Evaluation and research data support the WisCom model's ability to design a learning community engaged in the collaborative construction of knowledge.     

Message design for mobile learning: Learning theories,human cognition and design principles

The demands of an increasingly knowledge‐based society and the dramatic advances in mobile phone technology are combining to spur the growth of mobile learning (mLearning). However, for mLearning to attain its full potential, it is essential to develop pedagogy and instructional design tailored to the needs of this new learning environment. At present, there is a lack of research on message design for mLearning. Towards these ends, this paper explores the principles and processes of message design for mLearning, including the influence of learning and cognitive theories, human–computer interaction principles, devices and methodologies. And it presents a number of practical guidelines for designing instructional messages for mLearning.     

What Is the Value of Graphical Displays in Learning?

The article reviews studies that explain the role of graphical displays in learning and synthesizes relevant findings into principles for effective graphical design. Three theoretical perspectives provide the framework that organizes the review: dual coding theory, visual argument, and conjoint retention. The three theories are compatible although they are based on different assumptions. Research suggests that graphics are effective learning tools only when they allow readers to interpret and integrate information with minimum cognitive processing. Learners' characteristics, such as prior subject-matter knowledge, visuospatial ability, and strategies, influence graphic processing and interact with graphical design to mediate its effects. Future research should investigate the interplay between display and learner characteristics and how graphical design can address individual differences in learning from graphics.     

How Do Instructional‐Design Practitioners Make Instructional‐Strategy Decisions?

Many theories have been proposed to help instructional designers make instructional‐strategy decisions, yet it is not clear if these theories are actually used by ID practitioners. This study used a web‐survey to examine the design strategies of 113 ID practitioners. The survey asked respondents to rate how frequently they used learning or ID theories as well as 10 other design strategies, to help make instructional‐strategy decisions. Respondents were also asked how often they used different information sources to learn about new theories, trends, and strategies, and to respond to a set of contrasting statements depicting objectivist vs. construc‐tivist assumptions. The results indicate that ID practitioners most often rely on interaction with others both as a means of making instructional‐strategy decisions and of learning about new theories, trends, and strategies. Only fifty percent of the respondents said they regularly use theories when making instructional‐strategy decisions, using other design strategies more frequently instead; and most practitioners are eclectic in their underlying philosophical assumptions. Based on these results, we discuss implications for training and ongoing support of instructional designers.     

New learning and choices of secondary school teachers when arranging learning environments

The aim of this study was to determine the types of choices secondary teachers make when arranging learning environments and to determine how these choices change within the context of educational reforms aimed at the stimulation of New Learning. Interviews held with 15 Dutch secondary teachers showed three aspects of learning environments to which these choices of teachers are primarily related: (1) the division of teacher and learner roles, (2) learning goals, and (3) learning materials. The same three aspects emerged when teachers were specifically asked about arranging learning environments that stimulate New Learning. The interviews showed, however, that teachers have different conceptions of the instructional choices that will stimulate New Learning. In addition, teachers appeared to be thinking mostly in terms of learning products and not in terms of learning processes as a learning goal. Furthermore, teachers showed hardly any attention for arranging cooperative learner roles. For the successful transformation of education in the direction of New Learning, therefore, more support for teachers is recommended.     

学习者中心的技术设计:理念、方法与案例

随着教育范式总体朝向“以学为基点”的革命性转变,教育设计的重心开始从传统的支持“教”转向支持“学”。以往,教育技术研究者对“学习者中心设计”的讨论集中在总体的教学设计层面,而在具体的技术设计层面关注较少。学习者中心的技术设计基于学习科学研究,重点关注“技术支持的逼真学习环境设计以及其中帮助学习者跨越专长知识鸿沟的支架设计”。国际教育领域正在兴起的“设计研究”为促进学习者中心技术设计的持续革新提供了新的研究范式,而Model-It作为学习者中心技术设计的成功案例,为我们提供了有益的设计参考。     

Taking educational games seriously: using the RETAIN model to design endogenous fantasy into standalone educational games

We are witnessing a mad rush to pour educational content into games in an ad hoc manner in hopes that player/learners are motivated simply because the content is housed inside a game. A failure to base educational game design on well-established learning and instructional theories increases the risk of the game failing to meet its intended educational goals, and yielding students who are entertained but who have not acquired any academic skills or knowledge. Our review of standalone educational games has shown that they are not always based on sound educational principles and theories. We contend that, if academic learning is to take place, a new design paradigm must be developed. This article discusses the RETAIN design and evaluation model for educational games that was developed to aide in the evaluation of how well academic content is endogenously immersed and embedded within the game’s fantasy and story context, promoters transfer of knowledge, and encourages repetitive usage to that content becomes available for use in an automatic way.     

“基于问题的学习”在教师培训中的应用

建构主义学习理论所倡导的"基于问题的学习"日益受到关注。该模式中,学生围绕问题解决展开知识的主动建构,并藉此过程掌握灵活的知识基础,发展高层次的思维技能和自主学习的能力。其过程包括组织小组、启动问题、持续探讨问题、成果展示及反思和评价等环节。该模式对教师培训方式的变革颇具启迪和借鉴意义。     

中学数学学习风格初探

借鉴与支撑的理论：人本主义心理学,教育学与心理学中关于关注学习个体的理论。学习方法：夯实基础,建构知识系统,重视题型总结,加固薄弱环节,解答适量综合题。养成良好的学习习惯,考试习惯和有利于学生终身发展的其它重要习惯。     

Note-taking within MetaTutor: interactions between an intelligent tutoring system and prior knowledge on note-taking and learning

Hypermedia learning environments (HLE) unevenly present new challenges and opportunities to learning processes and outcomes depending on learner characteristics and instructional supports. In this experimental study, we examined how one such HLE—MetaTutor, an intelligent, multi-agent tutoring system designed to scaffold cognitive and metacognitive self-regulated learning (SRL) processes—interacts with learner’s prior domain knowledge to affect their note-taking activities and subsequent learning outcomes. Sixty (N = 60) college students studied with MetaTutor for 120 min and took notes on hypermedia content of the human circulatory system. Log-files and screen recordings of learner-system interactions were used to analyze notes for several quantitative and qualitative variables. Results show that most note-taking was a verbatim copy of instructional content, which negatively related to the post-test measure of learning. There was an interaction between prior knowledge and pedagogical agent scaffolding, such that low prior knowledge students took a greater quantity of notes compared to their high prior knowledge counterparts, but only in the absence of MetaTutor SRL scaffolding; when agent SRL scaffolding was present, the note-taking activities of low prior knowledge students were statistically equivalent to the number of notes taken by their high prior knowledge counterparts. Theoretical and instructional design implications are discussed.     

The impact of students’ exploration strategies on discovery learning using computer-based simulations

Discovery-based learning designs incorporating active exploration are common within instructional software. However, researchers have highlighted empirical evidence showing that “pure” discovery learning is of limited value and strategies which reduce complexity and provide guidance to learners are important if potential learning benefits are to be achieved. One approach to reducing complexity in discovery learning is limiting the range of possible actions for the learner to ensure that they do not undertake exploratory activities leading to confusion. This article reports on a study in which the learning outcomes from two learning conditions using computer-based simulations were compared. One condition allowed exploration through manipulation of simulation parameters, while the other allowed observation of simulation output from preset parameters, the latter condition designed to limit the complexity of the task. Learning outcomes for the 158 university student participants were assessed via pre-tests and post-tests of conceptual understanding. Students’ exploration activities were recorded and their strategies subsequently coded as either systematic or unsystematic. The results showed that when compared with observation, systematic exploration resulted in learning benefits, while unsystematic exploration did not. These results have implications for the design of discovery learning tasks and instructional guidance within computer-based simulations.     

Explorations of relationships among learners, tasks, and learning

Based on a critical re-analysis of cognitive load theory (CLT), Schnotz and Kürschner identified the need for research on more sensitive ways of assessing learner characteristics, both prior to and during instruction, in order to understand learning processes and outcomes. One emergent theme of the papers in this special issue is that the “same” learning environment is differentially demanding and produces different results depending on characteristics of the learners, most importantly their knowledge in the task domain. These findings indicate that to optimize learning outcomes, theories of instructional design and learning need to be more adaptive and reflect the nuances of interactions among learners, tasks, and instructional supports.