Reply to the Commentaries on the Math-Fact Retrieval Hypothesis

Geary and Wigfield and Brynes (this issue) point out a number of limitations of the math-fact retrieval hypothesis that we agree with. For instance, we acknowledge that whereas the correlational evidence we offer in our article (this issue) provides suggestive evidence for a link between math-fact retrieval and gender differences in math test performance, that evidence is not compelling. We also acknowledge that even if it is the case that math-fact retrieval is one of the cognitive mechanisms responsible for the gender differences in math performance, there are still many aspects of gender differences in math performance that need to be understood. We also point out a number of areas where we disagree. Most prominently, we do not believe that the spatial cognition hypothesis or affective/motivational hypotheses account for two significant literatures—gender differences in test performance and gender differences in grade performance. We discuss the basis for our beliefs and close with a discussion of the need for intervention research that will resolve some of the issues discussed in the series of articles in this issue. At the end of the article we also present a very speculative hypothesis that would knit together all of the positions presented in the articles in this issue of CEP.     

Chapter 3 Meta-analytic contributions to the study of gender differences in mathematics — the relationship of mathematical and spatial skills

Meta-analysis has become one of the most powerful and popular tools for investigating gender differences. Two meta-analyses of gender differences in mathematical tasks, Friedman (1989) and Hyde, Fennema, and Lamon (1990), are reviewed here. They provide evidence that these gender differences are declining over time. Since 1975, scores on the quantitative section of the Scholastic Aptitude Test echo this trend. A new meta-analysis of correlations of spatial and mathematical tasks is reported in this chapter. Sherman's (1967) hypothesis that a male advantage in spatial ability produces a male advantage in mathematical tasks has inspired an abundance of studies: these, along with factor-analytic and more recent psychometric contributions, form the core of this research synthesis. Both spatial and mathematical tasks have been categorized, and correlations within different categories are examined separately. For the most part, results are not consistent with the theory that spatially-based skill underlies mathematical thought.     

Brain Type or Sex Differences? A structural equation model of the relation between brain type,sex, and motivation to learn science

Sex is considered to be one of the most significant factors influencing attitudes towards science. However, the so-called brain type approach from cognitive science suggests that the difference in motivation to learn science does not primarily differentiate the girls from the boys, but rather the so-called systemisers from the empathizers. The present study investigates this hypothesis by using structural equation modelling on a sex-stratified sample of 500 male and female students of secondary II level. The results show, that the motivation to learn science is directly influenced by the systemizing quotient SQ, but not by sex. The impact of sex on the motivation to learn science, measured by five key concepts, only works indirectly, namely through the influence of sex on the SQ. The empathizing quotient (EQ) has no impact on the motivation to learn science. The SQ explains between 13 and 23 percent of the variation of the five key constructs. In female students, the impact of the SQ is very similar for all key concepts. In male students, it is highest for self-efficacy and lowest for assessment anxiety. The motivation to learn science is significantly larger for male students in all involved SMQ key concepts, but the difference is small. The interpretation of these findings and conclusions for science teaching and further research are discussed.     

Object location memory: A direct test of the verbal memory hypothesis

Although the male advantage in traditional spatial abilities is well established, the female advantage in object location memory remains tentative. Object location memory is the only spatial ability that yields a female advantage, leading some to speculate that other factors, such as verbal memory, may solely account for the sex difference. The present experiment directly addressed the role of verbal memory using a novel object location memory task. Results suggest that the direction of the sex difference is context-specific, depending on the nature of the stimuli, and that verbal memory may account for the female bias in object location memory.     

The Smarter Sex: A Critical Review of Sex Differences in Intelligence

Although there are no sex differences in general intelligence, reliable differences are found on some tests of cognitive abilities. Many of the tasks that assess the ability to manipulate visual images in working memory show an advantage for males, whereas many of the tasks that require retrieval from long-term memory and the acquisition and use of verbal information show a female advantage. Large effects favoring males are also found on advanced tests of mathematical achievement, especially with highly select samples. Males are also overrepresented in some types of mental retardation. Effects sizes are variable and often large. These differences are generally found cross-culturally and across the life span. The nature–nurture dichotomy is rejected as an interpretive framework. In light of recent findings that environmental variables alter the biological underpinnings of intelligence and individuals actively participate in creating their environments, we prefer a psychobiosocial model for understanding sex differences in intelligence.     

Developmental patterns of spatial ability: an early sex difference

Over 1,800 public school students (grades K-12, ages 6-18) took a battery of 7 spatial tests tailored to their respective developmental levels. Analyses of resulting data indicate that it is feasible to measure spatial ability throughout this developmental range with modified versions of adult paper-and-pencil tests, that a male advantage in spatial performance appears reliably by age 10, and that the magnitude of the advantage remains constant through age 18. Analysis of covariance suggests that an early female precocity in language skills may mask a male advantage in spatial ability during the primary school years. There is no indication of a sex difference in kindergarten children.     

Reducing the sex difference in math anxiety: The role of spatial processing ability

Decades of research have demonstrated that women experience higher rates of math anxiety – that is, negative affect when performing tasks involving numerical and mathematical skill – than men. Researchers have largely attributed this sex difference in math anxiety to factors such as social stereotypes and propensity to report anxiety. Here we provide the first evidence that the sex difference in math anxiety may be due in part to sex differences in spatial processing ability. In Study 1, undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing their level of math anxiety and their aptitude and preference for processing spatial configurations and schematic images. The results support the hypothesis that the relation between sex and math anxiety is mediated by spatial processing ability. In Study 2, we replicate these results with a more diverse sample of adults. Implications for the prevention and remediation of math anxiety and math anxiety-related achievement deficits are discussed.     

More Similar Than Different: Gender Differences in Children's Basic Numerical Skills Are the Exception Not the Rule

This study investigates gender differences in basic numerical skills that are predictive of math achievement. Previous research in this area is inconsistent and has relied upon traditional hypothesis testing, which does not allow for assertive conclusions to be made regarding nonsignificant findings. This study is the first to compare male and female performance (N = 1,391; ages 6–13) on many basic numerical tasks using both Bayesian and frequentist analyses. The results provide strong evidence of gender similarities on the majority of basic numerical tasks measured, suggesting that a male advantage in foundational numerical skills is the exception rather than the rule.     

The comparison of performance by sex of deaf children on the WISC-R

The Performance Scale of the WISC-R was administered to 60 female and 65 male hearing-impaired subjects. The only significant sex difference found was on the Coding subtest, with females outperforming males by a mean scaled score difference of 1.77 points (t = −3.087, p<.01). Subtest intercorrelational results suggest that deaf females possessed significantly better visual-motor coordination and speed, while males demonstrated better spatial analysis and synthesis skills. A principal factor analysis procedure yielded only one factor for each sex. The high degree of factorial similarity between the female and male samples indicated that the underlying construct being measured by the WISC-R Performance subtests does not differ by gender.     

从月亮神话看性别本质主义

女性主义对性别本质主义的解构与后现代多元主义对西方本质主义传统的颠覆相伴而生。本文从月亮这一区别两性差异的象征符号入手,通过对月亮神话中性别的演变、月亮女神的双重特质等方面分析了月亮女神的厄洛斯本质,指出正确认识与逻各斯相对的厄洛斯的重要性:首先,厄洛斯的阴性本质不仅仅为女性所有,它同样对男性起作用;其次,人不仅仅是逻各斯的动物,非理性的厄洛斯永远困扰着人类的理性文明。     

高中生生活压力事件调查

采用刘贤臣编写的《青少年生活事件量表（ASLESC）》对250名高中生进行调查。了解高中生生活压力事件的基本特点,为高中生的心理健康教育提供依据。结果显示：目前高中生存在的主要生活压力事件主要来自受惩罚、人际关系、学习压力方面,其中受惩罚因子是最主要的生活压力事件;高中生的生活压力事件在性别和年级上都存在差异;高中生的生活压力因子中除了其他因子在男女性别上存在显著性差异,其他方面因子在性别上均不存在显著性差异。因此,应根据高中生生活压力的性别和年级差异特点来缓解高中生生活压力,改善学生的心理健康水平。     

蒙汉回藏中学生性度取向的跨文化研究

该研究采用“贝姆性别角色量表”，对呼和浩特地区蒙汉回藏中学生共238人进行了测查。结果发现：1．蒙汉回藏中学生中存在四种性度取向类型，表明性度取向类型具有跨文化普遍性；2．其中双性化取向者占1／3左右，表明在现代化建设中他们的性别角色观念变化较大，蒙、藏族中学生大于汉、回族中学生差异显著；3．男性男性化和女性女性化类型分别占1／3和1／4。表明性别角色传统观念在我国中学生中还有一定影响，这种影响男生比女生大，回生比蒙汉藏生大；4．蒙汉回藏中学生中性化取向者，女生略高于男生，汉回生略高于蒙藏中学生，差异均不显著；5．初中和高中生性度取向四种类型比率大体相当，差异不显著。     

Influences of social learning on mate-choice decisions

Evidence from both field and laboratory is consistent with the hypothesis that animals can acquire mate preferences by observing the mating behavior of others. It is difficult, however, to distinguish social learning about mates from a host of other social effects on mating that do not produce changes in preferences. Examples are drawn from laboratory studies on mate choice in female and male Japanese quail that illustrate ways in which social cues influence mating decisions. Quail of both sexes use social cues to modify their mate choices, but the sexes use the information to serve different purposes. Female quail gain preferences for males seen mating with other females, whereas males avoid females that they had observed mating with other males. This sex difference in social learning provides an example of how costs and benefits of sexual behavior can shape decision-making processes. Implications of the influence of social learning on sexual selection are briefly discussed.     

新建本科院校新生计算机水平分析及教学改革思路

采用文献法、调查法、统计法,对三明学院2007级新生的计算机水平的差异特点进行研究。结果表明：新生计算机水平的差异存在于性别、专业间和地区间,较好同学与较差同学水平差距大,而本专科之间差异不大。提出了公共计算机教学应加强教学模式、教学内容、课程设置和教学管理等方面的改革思路。     

Strategy development in children with mathematical disabilities: insights from the choice/no-choice method and the chronological-age/ ability-level-match design

This study investigated the strategy characteristics and development of children with mathematical disabilities (MD) in the domain of simple addition and subtraction, in terms of Lemaire and Siegler's model of strategic change, using the choice/no-choice method and the combined chronological-age (CA)/ability-level (AL)-match design. Four groups of children, matched on either CA or mathematical AL, solved a series of 36 problems with the bridge over 10 in four conditions. In the choice condition, children could choose between retrieval, decomposition to 10, and counting on to solve each problem. In the retrieval, decomposition, and counting conditions, they had to answer the same 36 problems using retrieval, decomposition to 10, and counting on, respectively. The results revealed clear differences in the frequency, efficiency, and adaptiveness with which the CA-matched children applied the available strategies. In contrast, we observed no differences in strategy frequency, efficiency, and adaptiveness between the AL-matched children. These results support the hypothesis that the strategy development of children with MD is marked by a delay rather than a specific deficit. Moreover, this study further documents the value of the methodology used to study children's strategy use and development in the domain of simple arithmetic.     

Asymmetry in student achievement on multiple-choice and constructed-response items in reversible mathematics processes

In this paper we report the results of an experiment designed to test the hypothesis that when faced with a question involving the inverse direction of a reversible mathematical process, students solve a multiple-choice version by verifying the answers presented to them by the direct method, not by undertaking the actual inverse calculation. Participants responded to an online test containing equivalent multiple-choice and constructed-response items in two reversible algebraic techniques: factor/expand and solve/verify. The findings supported this hypothesis: Overall scores were higher in the multiple-choice condition compared to the constructed-response condition, but this advantage was significantly greater for items concerning the inverse direction of reversible processes compared to those involving direct processes.     

An investigation of sex differences on incidental memory for verbal and pictorial material

Previous research has sometimes claimed a female advantage on tasks of incidental memory. However, it is uncertain whether the sex difference was due to the incidental, or to the heavily verbal, nature of the tasks used, since women are known to have better verbal memory than men. The current study asked whether a female superiority would be found under less verbally-loaded conditions. No sex difference was found on two different pictorial tasks, both of which measured incidental memory for the content of complex scenes. In contrast, a female advantage was observed across both incidental and intentional conditions when easily labeled stimuli were used. This advantage was eliminated on the incidental condition when the effects of intentional verbal memory were controlled for. These findings strongly suggest that previous reports of a female advantage on incidental memory may have been due to the choice of verbalizable stimuli.     

Fearfulness in female and male cats

Cats were observed in four moderately frightening novel situations. One of 12 response measures indicated that females are more fearful than males, 1 indicated that males are more fearful than females, and the remaining 10 measures revealed no significant difference between males and females. The results thus yield no evidence of any large and consistent difference in fear between female and male cats. Gonadal hormones do not determine any single pattern of sex difference in fearfulness in different species of mammals. Species-specific patterns of social organization may predict sex differences in fear in studied species more accurately than endocrine factors.     

Characterizing mature human intelligence: Expertise development

Results from a study of 263 male players at 48 levels of expertise in the game of GO, and ranging from 18 to 78 years of age, suggest a need to revise the extended theory of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc) intelligence to take account of continued development of intelligence throughout adulthood. The extended theory of Gf–Gc is based on evidence that Gf, short-term apprehension and retrieval (SAR) and cognitive speed (Gs), decline with age over adulthood. Results from a number of studies, however, suggest that within the domains of expertise, high levels of reasoning, feats of memory and speeded thinking similar to Gf are displayed by older adults. To explore this hypothesis, measures of reasoning, memory and cognitive speed were constructed within the domain of expertise related to playing the complex game of GO. Analysis of the structure of the GO-embedded measures and standard measures of Gf (SAR and Gs) indicated a form of short-term memory — labeled expertise working memory (EWM) — that had substantially wider span than the short-term working memory (STWM) of SAR. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that long-term working memory is built up during the course of developing high levels of expertise. The results also suggest that a form of expertise deductive reasoning (EDR), utilizing EWM and incorporating large stores of knowledge, is distinct from Gf. Expertise cognitive speed (ECS), however, was not found to be reliably distinct from the Gs factor. Analyses of cross-sectional age differences indicate an age-related decline in both EDR and EWM, but as higher levels of expertise are reached, age-related decline does not occur. To the extent that there is continued press to advance expertise throughout adulthood, there may be improvement, not decline, in the EDR and EWM forms of intelligence.