The standards agenda: reflections of a special educational needs co‐ordinator

This study is a life history account of Bev, a special educational needs co‐ordinator who works in a primary school in England. The research examines how, within Bev's experiences, the discourses of integration and inclusion have affected learners with special educational needs. Additionally, the study examines the impact of the ‘performativity’ agenda on a mainstream school with a high proportion of learners with special educational needs. The account illustrates how, in Bev's experiences, inclusion operates within a powerful othering framework which marginalises children with special educational needs and their teachers. Additionally, the account raises questions about the risks of choosing to work in schools with high proportions of children with special educational needs within a discourse of performativity. It raises questions about whether the inclusion agenda has resulted in limited forms of inclusion and whether it was easier to meet children's holistic needs under the integration agenda.     

International orthodoxy versus national realities: inclusive schooling and the education of children with disabilities in Lesotho

Specialists with international influence have been advocating in an uncompromising manner the policy of including all children with special educational needs (SEN) in regular schools and classrooms. The endorsement of this policy by an internationally agreed convention implies that it is universally applicable. This paper, however, questions the relevance of this orthodoxy to the educational systems of low‐income countries and argues that the latter cannot easily progress from a situation of virtually no educational provision for disabilities straight to one of fully integrated provision. The paper examines an inclusion policy in Lesotho, a low‐income country, which began with ambitious goals but largely failed to meet the needs of children with disabilities. It then outlines an alternative strategy for that context. A phase of development in which there is considerable use of specialised facilities and selected schools is seen as necessary if more children with disabilities are to have meaningful opportunities for learning.     

Inclusion in school: a policy,ideology or lived experience? Similar findings in diverse school cultures

This article summarises three case studies examining the implementation of inclusive practices, which evidence the exclusionary pressures acting in school settings that put the needs, rights and entitlements of vulnerable children and young people at risk. It examines how three very culturally different secondary schools in England interpreted inclusive policies and illuminates the various constraints to the implementation of inclusive practices as experienced by senior leaders, teachers, parents and pupils in these schools. Conceptual unpreparedness towards inclusion versus integration, knowledge and false conceptualisations of special educational needs and difficulties associated with differentiation and time limitations were the main barriers presented. The implications for initial and professional teacher education are posited; it is suggested that inclusion can work by removing the diagnostic paradigm associated with special educational needs and by creating a framework for teachers' lifelong learning focusing on a social justice oriented pedagogy that will empower teachers conceptually and practically.     

Pedagogy,social status and inclusion in Cypriot schools

This paper reports on a study conducted in five primary schools in Cyprus, focusing in detail on one of them. The purpose of the research was to explore the social status of pupils identified as having special educational needs within mainstream settings. One of the key findings was that pedagogy influences the social status of these pupils. Therefore, this paper examines the dynamic relationship between pedagogy, social status and inclusion. A major intention for inclusion in Cyprus is to promote social interactions and relationships between pupils, identified as having special educational needs, and their peers. Thus, the research examined how far this aspiration is being fulfilled and set out to understand the role pedagogy might play in enhancing or impeding the social status and inclusion of these pupils. The findings suggest that the teaching arrangements and pedagogical approaches employed by teachers are central in shaping the social status and inclusion of all pupils and particularly those who have been identified as having special educational needs.     

Reconsidering the role of the primary special educational needs co-ordinator: policy, practice and future priorities

This article considers the impact of recent policy designed to define the roles and responsibilities of special educational needs co-ordinators (SENCos). The international drive towards the inclusion of children with special educational needs within the mainstream has led many schools to reconsider their structures and practices. In the UK, the SENCo role lies at the heart of these structures and the Government has sought to define this role both within a revised Code of Practice for special educational needs and in a set of national standards. In this article, Christine Szwed, Director of Studies for Initial Teacher Education at the University of Birmingham, reports the findings of a survey examining the context of SENCo role management within a group of primary schools. The findings indicate that the role cannot be generalisd and that SENCos are operating in increasingly complex contexts within very different management structures. Christine Szwed argues that, to be effective, SENCos must be enabled to work at a whole-school level and that the co-ordination of special needs is a development issue for the whole staff.     

Case study on special needs education in Pakistan: the process of inclusion

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an overview of the present educational system and structures in Pakistan. Historical developments in special education are reviewed, and legislation, policy, administration and organization at the national, regional and local levels are described. Efforts are under way in Pakistan to move away from the dual system of education, in which children with special educational needs receive educational services in special schools, towards an inclusive school system. Initiatives to mainstream children are being launched in pilot projects, and efforts are being made to build linkages between special and regular schools. Under the term ‘special needs education’, the trend is to shift the focus from disability categories towards building the capacity of the schools and providing needed support services. It is envisioned that the first step in promoting inclusion is to consolidate the dual administrative structure into a single system, with a clearly defined policy and plan for accommodating children with special needs within ordinary schools.     

Modern languages and special educational needs: a review of research

The Education Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 requires that all pupils of secondary school age should have equal access to a broad and balanced curriculum. The inclusion of language studies within the statutory framework of the Northern Ireland curriculum has led to a significant expansion in the teaching of modern languages to pupils with special educational needs. Many teachers are now faced with the task of teaching pupils who hitherto would have been excluded from the language department and some teachers in special schools now have to teach a language with which they themselves are unfamiliar. This paper is the first stage of a research and development project funded by the Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (NICCEA); it examines some research evidence relating to the challenge of teaching languages to pupils with special educational needs.     

Inclusive Practice in English Secondary Schools: Lessons learned

This paper considers how some secondary schools in England have been able to respond to the conflicting demands of school improvement policies, as measured by high academic standards and the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs. It begins with a discussion of the context in which all English schools are currently operating and a summary of the extent to which research on school effectiveness and school improvement has influenced research on inclusion and vice versa. Key findings from our work in secondary schools committed to inclusion are presented and discussed in light of teacher, subject department and whole school responses to pupil diversity. The paper concludes with a conceptualisation of inclusive schools as those that meet the dual criteria of enrolling a diverse student population and improving academic standards for all.     

What is the reality of ‘inclusion’ for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties in the primary classroom?

Abstract

Current education policy is oriented towards including children with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms. Hitherto they have been, on the whole, educated in special schools. Children with special educational needs include those who are physically disabled, those with learning difficulties and those with emotional and behavioural difficulties. It is the inclusion of this last group which is raising problems in mainstream classrooms. The article draws on psychoanalytic concepts in order to examine the reality of inclusion for three primary-age children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Observational material is presented which shows the impact of inclusion policy on the children, their teachers and their learning support assistants. There is also discussion of the work of the behaviour support teacher, whose job is to reduce exclusions and help schools to become more inclusive.     

Ideologies and utopias: education professionals' views of inclusion

The paper addresses the contrast between different elements in thinking about the appropriate educational placement for children with special educational needs. In particular, it is concerned with the tension between the widespread expressions of support for the principle of inclusion and a continuing level of support for separate special school provision. Evidence from interviews with education officers and headteachers of both special and mainstream schools in the UK demonstrates the support for inclusion as an ideal but also the relatively limited influence of such an ideal on education policy. Considerable reservations were expressed about the feasibility of inclusion, based on the types and severity of children's difficulties and the capacity of mainstream schools to meet them. Contrasting with support for inclusion was a set of views which stressed the primacy of meeting children's individual needs as overriding an ideological commitment to inclusionist ideals. Themes within utopian thinking, in particular, the distinction between hope and desire and the different functions which can be served by utopian ideals, are used to explore tensions and contradictions in the interview responses and in educational thinking more generally.     

Special educational needs across two decades: survey evidence from english primary schools

Abstract The article considers the perceived prevalence of special educational needs in English primary schools and changes in this prevalence over two decades and relates these to issues in education policy, teacher practice and the concept of special educational needs. The studies considered are two major surveys of schools and teachers, the first conducted in 1981 and the second conducted in the same schools in 1998. Important features of both studies were their scale and the exceptionally high response rates achieved. Two central findings were the perception of teachers that special educational needs were widespread and of an increase in special educational needs over time: perceived levels of special educational needs were one in five children in 1981, which had risen to one in four children in 1998. Learning difficulties were by far the most common aspects of special educational needs but many children had multiple difficulties, and behavioural difficulties were seen by teachers as the main barriers to inclusion. The very high figures for prevalence raise questions about the continued usefulness of the concept of special educational need distinct from broader issues of achievement.     

Perceptions of the barriers to effective inclusion in one primary school: voices of teachers and teaching assistants

This study examined the barriers to inclusion in one primary school in the north of England. Qualitative data were collected from teachers and teaching assistants through the use of a focus group. The evidence suggested that practices within the school were varied and ranged from highly inclusive to highly exclusive. Some teachers worked in good faith to develop effective inclusion for learners with special educational needs. Conversely, other teachers displayed negative attitudes towards these pupils and this impacted negatively on the school's commitment to inclusion. Lack of funding, resources and training were identified as key barriers to inclusion. Parental resistance to inclusion was also evident within the context of this school and there was a strong feeling that the inclusion agenda was problematic in the context of the standards agenda. Despite these issues there was a strong sense that practitioners should be willing to commit to the principles of inclusive education and the study considers some ways in which schools can advance their practice in this respect. Within this study the term ‘practitioner’ is used to represent teachers and teaching assistants.     

Inclusion and achievement: student achievement in secondary schools with higher and lower proportions of pupils designated as having special educational needs

This paper reports on a multi‐method study that examined the effects of including higher and lower proportions of students designated as having special educational needs on student achievement in secondary schools. It explores some of the issues involved in conducting such research and considers the extent to which newly available national data in England can be helpful in answering questions about inclusion and achievement. Questions pertaining to the effects of provision on achievement are discussed within a school reform agenda that emphasizes high academic standards, competition between schools and the identification of pupils with special educational needs.     

Inclusion: the role of special and mainstream schools

For children with special educational needs, seeds were sown for the move away from segregated settings to inclusion in mainstream settings following the 1978 Warnock Report. However, the ‘special versus mainstream school’ debate was re‐ignited in 2005 when Warnock recommended a more significant role for special schools than previously envisaged. Furthermore, an increase in special school placement has been reported, prompting this investigation of the role of special schools in the current climate of inclusion. Literature from Britain, Europe and New Zealand, including research that listens to ‘the voice of the child’, which compares experiences of children with special educational needs in special and mainstream schools, is reviewed. The findings give no clear indication that either setting leads to better outcomes. Tensions between the inclusion agenda and standards agenda are highlighted. It is concluded that special schools in reduced numbers are likely to remain a feature of the inclusive education system, with recommendations for the development of special–mainstream school partnership links. The quality of the setting, regardless of the type of setting, is emphasised, highlighting implications for staff training in special and mainstream schools. Further research comparing outcomes for children educated in different types of provision is recommended.     

Teaching Education about Sexuality: a Scottish Regional Case Study

This article examines the efficacy of policy and practice, within one Scottish region, of education about sexuality in secondary schools. The primary focus is on teaching sexuality to pupils with recorded learning difficulties, with a particular emphasis on the concepts of inclusion, normalisation and integration. The authors are Sheila Watt, Lecturer in the School of Education, University of Dundee; Elizabeth Horn, a teacher of pupils with special educational needs; and Cassie Higgins, a research assistant also based in the School of Education at the University of Dundee.     

Leadership for inclusion: a comparison of international practices

The issue of inclusion is high on the educational reform agenda in many countries. Set within the context of the United Nations organisation's push for ‘Education for All’, the aim is to find ways of increasing the participation and learning of pupils who are vulnerable to marginalisation within existing educational arrangements ( World Education Forum, 2000 ). In the United States, inclusive education is generally thought of as an approach to serving children with disabilities within general education settings. Internationally, however, it is sometimes seen more broadly as a reform that supports and welcomes diversity among all learners ( Ainscow, 1999 ). The research reported in this paper adopts this broadened formulation. It presumes that the aim of inclusive education is to eliminate social exclusion and that is a consequence of attitudes and responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity, religion, gender and ability ( Vitello & Mithaug, 1998 ). Children with disabilities and others seen as having special educational needs are part of this agenda. The paper focuses specifically on the implications of these developments for leadership roles in schools. In particular, it uses evidence from case studies of leadership practice in three countries to address the question, what types of leadership practice foster inclusion in schools? The paper provides a theoretical framework that throws light on what is involved in such practices and presents illustrative examples. The aim is to provide an analysis that will be of direct relevance to practitioners, whilst at the same time adding to theory. The examples of leadership that are examined were found in schools in England, Portugal, and the United States that serve culturally and linguistically diverse groups of children, including significant numbers from low‐income families. In each of the schools, children with disabilities and others categorised as having special educational needs are taught in general education classrooms alongside their peers.     

Social acceptance and the choosing of favourite classmates: a comparison between students with special educational needs and typically developing students in a context of full inclusion

Empirical data on the effects of inclusion regarding the social participation of typically developing students and those with special educational needs are still controversial. While some studies suggest that the more extensive the inclusion, the higher the social position of students with special educational needs, evidence from other studies indicates that the full inclusion of students with special educational needs into ordinary schools is not sufficient, per se, to increase their social participation. In this study, we set out to investigate the social position of students with special educational needs and typically developing students studying in regular classroom environments in Italian primary and secondary schools. Given that being accepted is far from the same as being chosen, besides examining rates of acceptance and rejection, we also considered the choices made by students regarding their favourite classmates. The results demonstrated that students with special educational needs are significantly less accepted and are very rarely chosen as favoured classmates by their typically developing counterparts. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

The placement of secondary school students with Statements of special educational needs in the more diversified system of English secondary schooling

This article examines the pattern of placement of students with significant special educational needs at Statement and School Action Plus levels in English secondary schools, comparing sponsored and converter academies, maintained schools and the newly created free schools, studio schools and university technical colleges for 2013 and 2014. The analysis shows a clear pattern of differences: converter academies (which are governed by their own governing body) had significantly lower proportions of students with significant special educational needs overall than maintained (those remaining under local authority management) and sponsored academies (those considered to be weak/failing schools forced to become academies with outside sponsors that oversee the schools). There was a similar pattern of findings for most areas of special educational needs, except visual impairment and autistic spectrum disorder. The pattern of placement of students with Statements in the newly created free schools also showed that some free schools have unusually high proportions of students with special educational needs. These findings are discussed in terms of the increasing stratification of English secondary schools and the potential of small secondary schools to be more inclusive.     

INCLUSIVE AND SPECIAL EDUCATION: Inclusive and special education in the English educational system: historical perspectives,recent developments and future challenges

Special education in England has over the past 25 years been subject to rapid development, not least in relation to the emergence of inclusive education. Alan Hodkinson of the Faculty of Education, Community and Leisure, John Moore's University, critically examines the development of inclusion in England and the barriers that can stall the development of this important educational and societal initiative. He discusses the journey towards inclusion from educational segregation to integration and describes the current Government stance on this important subject. Alan Hodkinson suggests that many of the barriers to effective inclusion are in practice located within the loci of Government, local authorities as well as that of schools. He concludes that it is now time to develop a new vision for the education of children with special educational needs and disabilities that is supported by straightforward, co‐ordinated and well‐resourced policies. If educational policy is to achieve an inclusive consciousness, it must ensure that the views of children, their families and educational professionals are listened to, and that inclusion is by the choice of the pupils and their parents and not by compulsion.     

Partnerships between special and mainstream schools

Mainstreaming and inclusion of students with special educational needs in regular education, challenge traditional concepts and common practices. Traditionally, special education has been a parallel yet separate educational system. Even though there is almost universal agreement on the goals of inclusion and mainstreaming, special education schools have proved to be resilient and still exist in many countries. One approach to promoting the goal of inclusion is the establishment of collaborative partnerships between special and mainstream schools. This paper will discuss models of such partnerships based on a literature review and visits to partner special and mainstream schools in Israel. Positive elements of these partnerships as well as challenges involved are presented.