Children's Affectionate Behavior Gender Differences

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in (a) the amount of affectionate behavior expressed by boys and girls and (b) the types of recipients of boys' and girls' affectionate behavior. Data were collected by conducting naturalistic observations of 76 children (32 males and 44 females) in six daycare centers. The affectionate behaviors observed were smiling, affectionate words, and active and passive affectionate physical contact. The results indicated that children's affectionate behavior was not gender typed as defined by social learning theory. However, there were gender differences related to the recipients of children's affectionate behavior. Children expressed more affection to (a) individual children and teachers than to groups and (b) same-gender peers than to opposite-gender peers. The specific behaviors making important contributions to the overall differences between boys' and girls' expressions of affection to male and female children differed. The results indicate there is a need to include the interpersonal context of the behavior when examining gender differences and to expand theory and research on the role of affection in children's development and relationships.     

Early childhood teachers' affectionate behavior: Differential expression to female children,male children,and groups of children

This study examined differences in (1) the amount of affectionate behavior that early childhood teachers expressed to individuals versus groups of children and (2) the amount of affection that teachers expressed to female and male children. Data were collected by conducting naturalistic observations of 47 female teachers in six day care centers. Teachers' affectionate behavior and the types of recipients were recorded. The behaviors observed were smiling, affectionate words, active affectionate physical contact, and passive affectionate physical contact. The data were converted to percentages and subjected to parametric multivariate analyses of variance. The teachers were found to express more affection to female children than to male children and more affection to individual children than to groups of children. Implications for teacher training and early childhood programs are discussed.     

The Socialization of Compassionate Behavior by Child Care Teachers

The present study examined how child care teachers' socialization practices and child characteristics jointly predict children's sympathetic-prosocial responding. A total of 25 teachers of 105 five-year-old children were observed during free play with regard to their warmth, non-directiveness and passivity-activity. The children's reactions to distress simulations in two different situations were observed. The children's inhibition and aggression were rated by teachers and parents. More compassionate behavior was shown by girls as compared to boys and by children in classes with warmer teachers; inhibited children showed tendentially less sympathetic-prosocial reactions than non-inhibited children. Furthermore, girls who showed sympathetic-prosocial reactions were rated as more aggressive than girls who did not, and boys who showed sympathetic-prosocial behavior as compared to those who did not were in classes with warmer teachers. The data suggest that child characteristics as well as socialization practices play an important role in children's interpersonal functioning. Among the teacher variables, their ability to interact in a warm, affectionate way is of central importance for the development of emotional competence in children.     

Children's Affectionate Behavior Gender Differences

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in (a) the amount of affectionate behavior expressed by boys and girls and (b) the types of recipients of boys' and girls' affectionate behavior. Data were collected by conducting naturalistic observations of 76 children (32 males and 44 females) in six daycare centers. The affectionate behaviors observed were smiling, affectionate words, and active and passive affectionate physical contact. The results indicated that children's affectionate behavior was not gender typed as defined by social learning theory. However, there were gender differences related to the recipients of children's affectionate behavior. Children expressed more affection to (a) individual children and teachers than to groups and (b) same-gender peers than to opposite-gender peers. The specific behaviors making important contributions to the overall differences between boys' and girls' expressions of affection to male and female children differed. The results indicate there is a need to include the interpersonal context of the behavior when examining gender differences and to expand theory and research on the role of affection in children's development and relationships.     

Training preservice teachers to use evidence-based practices: Effects of coaching with performance feedback on teacher and child outcomes

Three-term contingency trials (TCTs) involve planned/naturally occurring antecedents, child's demonstration of target behaviors, and planned/naturally occurring consequences. Positive relationships between teachers' frequent use of TCTs and children's learning were noted in literature. This study aimed to investigate impact of an intervention package including training and coaching with performance feedback on experienced and novice special education preservice teachers' use of TCTs and relationship between teachers' implementation and child outcomes through two single-case experiments using multiple baseline across participants design. Three special education preservice teachers and three children with disabilities participated in each study. Results indicated intervention package was effective in increasing preservice teachers' use of TCTs. Preservice teachers generalized their use and sustained it during maintenance sessions conducted after intervention ended. Furthermore, as frequency and accuracy of preservice teachers' implementation increased, percentage of children's correct responses in relation to target skills improved. Implications for future practice and research are discussed.     

Exploring teachers' knowledge of children's literature

In the context of the current debate about teaching reading, research to ascertain primary teachers' personal and professional reading practices was undertaken. The study explored teachers' reading habits and preferences, investigated their knowledge of children's literature, and documented their reported use of such texts and involvement with library services. Questionnaire responses were gathered from 1200 teachers. The data were analysed and connections made between the teachers' own reading habits and preferences, their knowledge of children's literature, their accessing practices and pedagogic use of literature in school. This paper reports on part of the dataset and focuses on teachers' knowledge of children's literature; it reveals that primary professionals lean on a narrow repertoire of authors, poets and picture fiction creators. It also discusses teachers' personal reading preferences and considers divergences and connections between these as well as the implications of the teachers' limited repertoires on the reading development of young learners.     

Stressful life experiences of children: The correspondence between professional judgments of teachers‐in‐training and children's perceptions

The extant studies reveal a considerable mismatch between students' and teachers' perceptions of student stress. The present study compared the judgments of teachers‐in‐training (N = 109) with the responses of first‐ and sixth‐grade children (n = 56 and 93, respectively). The following questions are addressed: (a) Do teachers' judgments of the stressfulness of children's experiences correspond with those of the children themselves? (b) Do teachers' perceptions differ according to general developmental status (first grade level versus sixth grade level)? (c) Does the amount of teaching experience have a significant influence on ratings? Results revealed that teachers' judgments corresponded more closely with the children's ratings at the first grade level than at the sixth grade level. However, teachers' perceptions did differ according to grade level for the majority of life events. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between the ratings of the experienced and inexperienced teachers at either grade level. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 44: 807–821, 2007.     

Emotional Support Consistency and Teacher–Child Relationships Forecast Social Competence and Problem Behaviors in Prekindergarten and Kindergarten

Teachers' ratings of conflict and closeness as well as observed emotional support are known predictors of children's social functioning. Consistency in emotional support represents an emerging line of research. The goal of the present study is to understand whether the relation between the consistency of teachers' emotional support and children's behavior is mediated by teacher–child relationships. The role of gender is also considered. Using MPlus, the present study examines the indirect effect of emotional support consistency in prekindergarten on children's social competence and problem behaviors. Outcomes are extended to kindergarten to test the lasting association between the prekindergarten social environment and child behavior in the kindergarten year. Multigroup models examine gender differences. Research Findings: Observations of 694 prekindergarten classrooms revealed that teachers' emotional support consistency had an indirect effect on social competence and problem behavior through conflict in the teacher–child relationship in prekindergarten and kindergarten. The indirect effect on prekindergarten problem behaviors through conflict was stronger for boys. For closeness, all outcomes were significant with the exception of the indirect effect on problem behaviors in the kindergarten year. Practice or Policy: Consistency in prekindergarten teachers' emotional support has an indirect effect on children's behavior in prekindergarten and the following year in kindergarten through teacher–child relationships. Improving teachers' emotional support consistency may be 1 avenue for strengthening teacher–child relationships.     

Student teachers' learning about child sexual abuse strategies for primary school: an exploratory study of surface and deep learning

This paper explores student teachers' understandings of child sexual abuse and strategies to deal with it that are appropriate for the primary school classroom. Evidence of surface and deep learning were obtained from a content analysis of student teachers' responses to an essay‐type exam question, using Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. The results show that participants were most likely to be rated as having achieved at intermediate levels, and less likely to be at either the lowest or highest levels. The data suggest that greater provision should be made for addressing child sexual abuse during the training of such professionals to enhance their deeper thinking about child sexual abuse and strategies to deal with it. Since pre‐service teacher education plays a significant role in enhancing the quality of future teachers, it is important that they are helped to achieve the highest levels associated with understanding universals, principles, generalizations and abstractions. The implications of these results for teaching in primary schools strongly suggest the importance of comprehensive, enhanced, longer, and on‐going programmes on child sexual abuse across pre‐service education.     

Children's Temperament and Academic Skill Development During First Grade: Teachers' Interaction Styles as Mediators

The present study followed 156 Finnish children (M_age = 7.25 years) during the first grade of primary school to examine to what extent parent‐ and teacher‐rated temperament impacts children's math and reading skill development during the first grade, and the extent to which this impact would be mediated by teachers' interaction styles with the children. The results showed that the impact of children's low task orientation and negative emotionality on their math skill development was mediated via teachers' behavioral control and, among girls, also by psychological control. The negative impact of children's inhibition on math skill development, in turn, was not mediated via teachers' interaction styles. Temperament did not predict the children's reading skill development during first grade.     

Student teachers in the contact zone: developing critical intercultural ‘teacherhood’ in kindergarten teacher education

This paper reports on the results of a narrative-grounded investigation ofstudent teachers' intercultural experiences and learning during their teaching practice. Our interest is in the meaning of the intercultural contact zone and how education for diversities is conceptualised and reflected upon in Finnish teacher education. Critical event narratives were collected from 10 kindergarten student teachers' teaching practice portfolios where the focus was on observing and reflecting on diversities in education. Theoretically, the study relies on Pratt's theory of contact zone. The methods and conditions for supporting student teachers' understanding of diversities in teacher education are discussed.     

Children's Behavioral Adjustment in Pre-Primary Schools in Tanzania: A Multilevel Approach

Research Findings: The present study concerns children's behavioral adjustment in the context of pre-primary schools in Tanzania. Twenty teachers and 320 children from 20 pre-primary schools participated in the study. Teacher–child relationships, children's behavioral adjustment, and teachers' cultural beliefs were reported by teachers; classroom emotional support was measured through classroom observation. The multilevel findings revealed that high-quality teacher–child relationships and high-quality teacher sensitivity were related to children's prosocial behavioral adjustment. In contrast, observed low-quality teacher–child relationships and low-quality teacher sensitivity were found to be related to children's aggression and anxiety. In addition, teachers' cultural beliefs, concerning play in particular, were found to be related to children's anxiety. The findings support the ecological theory regarding the importance of child characteristics and classroom context in shaping a child's behavioral adjustment in schools. Practice or Policy: The results have implications for pre-primary school teachers in Tanzania, to consider their relationships with children and their sensitivity to children as important aspects for children's behavioral adjustment in schools. They also inform policymakers about the role of pre-primary school teachers in the country.     

Correlates of affectionate and angry behavior in child care educators of preschool-aged children

The present study marks the first empirical exploration designed to investigate factors related specifically to child care educators’ levels of affection and anger. Based on the presumption that their affectionate and angry behaviors would have major implications for the development of the children for whom they care, the aim of the present investigation is to provide the groundwork for identifying what factors are associated with educator warmth and anger in child care settings.Several categories of variables were used to predict affectionate and angry caregiver behavior. These included educator characteristics, such as training and experience, personal resources such as well-being, self-esteem and social support, the work environment as measured by regulatable characteristics, wages and global quality, and the caregiver’s perceptions and opinions about her work. A multi-method, multi-respondent approach was employed, including researcher observations, educator self-report questionnaires, and objective data collected from directors and from Québec’s official licensing agency.The findings from this study suggest that different sets of variables are related to affection and anger. The work environment had a greater relation with caregivers’ affectionate behavior, whereas more internal, negative perceptions were linked to the expression of anger in the classroom. Though educator training did not predict anger or affection, training did in fact become very important to the quality of the interactions the educators had with the children when other risk factors were present.     

Labeling,Affect, and Teachers' Hypothetical Approaches to Conflict Resolution: An Exploratory Study

The current study investigated how teachers would intervene in hypothetical conflicts experienced by students in the classroom and how informal labeling of students and affect relate to teachers' hypothetical interventions. Thirty-one teachers from various early childhood learning centers were recruited for participation. Teachers were presented with 3 hypothetical situations depicting children involved in peer conflicts. They were asked to rate the child who had initiated the conflict according to lists of positive and negative characteristics, as well as to rate how much positive and negative affect was elicited from the situation. Next, teachers recorded how they would intervene in each conflict, with responses coded as either mediation or cessation. Results suggested that teachers tended to use more cessation than mediation in dealing with classroom conflict and that interventions varied depending on the described behavioral background of the child presented. Labeling and affect also varied among the 3 different child characterizations of easy, difficult, and ambiguous. Findings lend support to a relationship between both labeling and affect with teachers' negotiation interventions. Understanding the implications of this study in the context of its limitations is highlighted.     

The Effect of Teachers' Memory‐Relevant Language on Children's Strategy Use and Knowledge

Building on longitudinal findings of linkages between aspects of teachers' language during instruction and children's use of mnemonic strategies, this investigation was designed to examine experimentally the impact of instruction on memory development. First and second graders (N = 54, M_age = 7 years) were randomly assigned to a science unit that varied only in teachers' use of memory‐relevant language. Pretest, posttest, and 1‐month follow‐up assessments revealed that although all participating children learned new information as a result of instruction, those exposed to memory rich teaching exhibited greater levels of strategic knowledge and engaged in more sophisticated strategy use in a memory task involving instructional content than did students exposed to low memory instruction. The findings provide support for a causal linkage between teachers' language and children's strategic efforts.     

A Preliminary Study of Questions Which Adolescents Find Unanswerable

In this article, the authors investigated the teacher practices that middle school students attend to when appraising their classroom's mastery goal structure. After students rated each item on the mastery goal structure scale, they wrote what their teacher did or said that led them to make that choice. Students' responses to the open-ended questions were coded thematically. The categories mentioned most often involved the pedagogical and affective nature of teachers' interactions with students. Recognition and evaluation practices and teachers' use of time were also salient to students. There were no differences in the practices that students attended to in classrooms with high, compared with low, mastery goal structure.     

Teachers' Responses to Children's Eye Gaze

When asked questions, children often avert their gaze. Furthermore, the frequency of such gaze aversion (GA) is related to the difficulty of cognitive processing, suggesting that GA is a good indicator of children's thinking and comprehension. However, little is known about how teachers detect and interpret such gaze signals. In Study 1 teaching interactions were analysed to determine teachers' responses to different patterns of children's eye gaze. In Study 2 a different group of teachers completed a questionnaire assessing their awareness of GA in determining children's thinking, understanding, and interest. Results showed that teachers did not typically respond to children's GA in predicted ways and did not associate GA with children's thinking. However, when asked explicitly about GA cues they made predictions relating to question difficulty and children's thinking in line with empirical work. We conclude that while teachers have an implicit understanding of GA cues, they typically do not make full use of such cues during classroom teaching.     

An exploratory study of the knowledge base for science teaching

The purpose of this study was to describe the knowledge base of a group of science teachers in terms of their knowledge of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines, and their understanding of the nature of science. The study also aimed to relate the teachers' knowledge base to their level of education, years of teaching experience, and the class level(s) that they teach. Twenty inservice science teachers were selected to respond to a modified version of the Views on Science–Technology–Society (VOSTS) questionnaire to assess their understanding of the nature of science. The teachers then constructed concept maps and were interviewed. The concept maps were scored and the interviews analyzed to assess teachers' knowledge of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines. The teachers' knowledge base was found to be lacking in all respects. Teachers held several naive views about the nature of science and did not demonstrate adequate knowledge and understanding of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines. Moreover, the teachers' knowledge base did not relate to their years of teaching experience, the class level(s) that they teach, and their level of education. It was reasoned that teacher preparation programs are not helping teachers develop the knowledge base needed for teaching science. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 34: 673–699, 1997.     

Keeping track of expert teachers: Comparing the affordances of think-aloud elicited by two different video perspectives

Verbal data from think-aloud is uniquely unobtrusive and non-reactive. It can therefore generate real-time insight into how expert teachers think. Our paper analyses data from two video-stimulated retrospective think-aloud approaches. The first approach used videos of others' teaching as stimuli for participating teachers' think-aloud. The second approach involved the teachers' own-perspective videos, overlaid with the teachers' own gaze patterns that were simultaneously recorded. In all, the study sets out to investigate how these two approaches differ with regard to their respective potential for uncovering expert teacher cognition. Others' videos elicited more think-aloud responses than gaze-cued own-perspective videos, especially the operational aspects of classroom teaching. Interaction analysis revealed expert–novice differences to vanish when only think-aloud responses to gaze-cued own-perspective videos were considered. Classroom relationships might be integral for any teacher's navigation of classroom instruction, regardless of expertise.     

Raising the Educational Requirements for Teachers in Infant Toddler Classrooms: Implications for Institutions of Higher Education

This article describes preschool teachers' espoused mental models (EMMs) or, in other words, their naïve understanding of young children's learning. Our research goal was to examine differences within the teachers' EMMs regarding the minds and learning of young children from different cultural backgrounds. The subjects included 18 preschool teachers from the center of Israel, all of whom belonged to the mainstream cultural background and taught in the national school system. Their classes consisted of 5- to 6-year-old children from the mainstream cultural group as well as children from Ethiopian immigrant families. We conducted individual semistructured interviews that were transcribed and analyzed to identify the original EMM structure. While analyzing the parts of the narratives that referred to Ethiopian children, we discovered a metacategory that did not exist in the original model: Culture. This finding contributes to the construct of espoused mental models for teachers of children from diverse populations.