Comment on “Football-specific fitness testing: adding value or confirming the evidence?”

Abstract

The recent point–counter-point exchange arising from the article by Mendez-Villanueva and Buchheit (2013) (Football-specific fitness testing: Adding value or confirming the evidence? Journal of Sports Sciences, 31, 1503–1508) has generated an interesting debate on the real-world utility of fitness testing in professional association football (soccer). In the present authors’ opinion, this exchange could also have been placed more in the context of the physical testing and subsequent benchmark profiling of the youth player within elite academy talent identification and development processes. This point is further strengthened by the current media debate at the time of writing on the development of elite youth football players in England and the Elite Player Performance Plan or EPPP (The Premier League. (2011). Elite Player Performance Plan. London: Author) published by the English Premier League as part of a vision for the future development of youth football in the League and throughout the English professional game. The EPPP recommends the implementation of a national database to enable comparison of Academy player performances against national physical testing “benchmark” profiles. In continuing the above debate, this letter questions the real-world utility and potential pitfalls of nationwide athletic benchmark profiling programmes for elite youth football.     

足球比赛“瞬间误判”现象分析及纠正方法

针对足球裁判员在比赛过程中出现＂瞬间误判＂的现象,文章从心理,生理方面进行了分析,对参加足球甲级联赛哈尔滨赛区以及全国足球超级联赛吉林和辽宁赛区的80名足球裁判员进行走访得出：克服心理障碍、熟悉参赛双方球队的攻守战术、了解球员的技术特点、提高判断预见力、注意合理放松、提高有限注意容量,是解决＂瞬间误判＂的有效纠正方法。从而提高足球裁判员的执法水平,降低瞬间误判的出现几率,保证比赛公正、公平有序的进行。     

解析欧足联即将推行的“财政公平政策”——矛头直指“烧钱”超

针对欧洲顶级联赛俱乐部出现的收支严重亏损状况,特剐是英超,欧足联提出并通过了“财政公平政策”,旨在使欧洲足球的发展更加均衡。英超采取应对措施：实施“本土8人”新规;20支球队还要定期向英足总提交俱乐部财务报表。但是这一政策仍然存在一些问题：“财政公平“可能会凸现马太效应,豪门受益的状况难以得到扭转,青训体系可能会发生很大变化。     

英格兰足球超级联盟研究及对我国职业足球发展的启示

英国作为现代足球的发源地,一直是世界足球强国。英超联盟是英国足球产业的中流砥柱,在英国体育事业中发挥着举足轻重的作用。通过对英超联盟的组织结构、产权框架与经营手段的研究,反思中国职业足球存在的“管办不分”“产权不清”以及“管理混乱”等问题,体现在中超联赛上就是组织结构的不完善与商业开发能力的严重不足。为了解决这些问题,结合中国自身实际,提出从加强联赛理事会建设与促进中超公司发展这两个角度寻找一条适合中国足球发展的道路。     

足球裁判对比赛时间的控制

对2000欧洲杯和98-99中国甲A联赛的比赛实际时间、纯时间、中断次数、犯规与警告次数进行对比分析，指出国际、国内足球裁判在控制比赛时间和停顿方面的差距。建议国内裁判应严格控制比赛实际时间，正确使用有利原则，促进足球运动健康发展。     

Elite refereeing structures in England: a perfect model or a challenging invention?

The structure employed in England for referees and elite referees is something which has evolved as the game of Association Football has developed over time. This referee promotion, support and management system has changed more rapidly since the inauguration of the Premier League and latterly since the introduction of ‘full-time’ or ‘professional’ referees. The change in the promotion and support for elite referees has necessitated changes to that management structure at the elite level in particular. This article has utilized historical research to analyse the changes to these structures alongside semi-structured interviews as a means of analysing this evolving network for elite referees. Findings indicate that support for the changes which have occurred in elite refereeing regarding the establishment of ‘full-time’ referees are opposed, with alternating views also encompassing the current structure employed for managing elite referees in England and the pathways utilized for referee promotion.     

Game on: the commercialisation and corruption of the pre-season friendly

This research provides a first detailed analysis of pre-season friendlies to examine how what was once a loosely organized series of practice matches has become a major part of the globalization of football. The essay is framed within theories on sporting globalization to consider issues including brand protection, brand equity and governance as the evolution of the pre-season friendly at leading clubs in England is traced since the launch of the Premier League in 1992/1993. Comparisons are drawn with the Football League and leagues in France, Germany, Italy and Spain to identify governance challenges posed by the growing importance of these matches and the implications for the future.     

Intensities of exercise during match-play in FA Premier League referees and players

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between intensities of exercise during match-play of elite-standard soccer referees with those of the players from the same match. Match analysis data were collected (Prozone? Leeds, UK) for 18 elite-standard soccer referees (age 26-49 years) on FA Premier League matches during the 2008/09 English FA Premier League season (236 observations). Running categories for referees and players were as follows: total distance covered (m); high-speed running distance (speed >19.8 km · h(-1)); and sprinting distance (speed >25.2 km · h(-1)). Analysis of the distance-time regression coefficients revealed no differences between the referees' and players' within-match rates of change for total distance covered (-0.594 ± 0.394 vs. -0.713 ± 0.269 m · min(-1); P = 0.104), high-speed running (-0.039 ± 0.077 vs. -0.059 ± 0.030 m · min(-1); P = 0.199), and sprinting (-0.003 ± 0.039 vs. -0.021 ± 0.017 m · min(-1); P = 0.114). In addition, there were no differences between across-season rates of change for total distance (-26.756 ± 40.434 vs. -20.031 ± 25.502 m per match day; P = 0.439) and sprinting (-9.662 ± 7.564 vs. -8.589 ± 4.351 m per match day; P = 0.542). These results show that elite-standard soccer referees' intensities of exercise during match-play are interrelated with those of the players and thus demonstrate that referees are able to keep pace with the players during FA Premier League matches.     

Creating the English Premier Football League: A Brief Economic History with Some Possible Lessons for Asian Soccer

Abstract

This paper outlines the development of the English Premier League association football competition and in doing so analyzes the consequences of collective decisions made by the constituent clubs on matters such as revenue sharing, salary caps and broadcasting rights, as well as the legacy effects of not fully breaking away from an existing organization. It concludes with a consideration of what Asian soccer might learn from the experiences of the English organization.     

‘Managing the Media’: The Changing Relationship Between Football Managers and the Media

This article examines how the relationship between the media and football managers has evolved over the twentieth century. In particular, it argues that before the late 1960s, the print media largely shaped perceptions of managers but after this period, television became the dominant medium in framing their image. In a wider context, this relationship has reflected changes in the media as well as mirroring football's association with it. The transformation of football managers into celebrities, for example, has reflected the so-called ‘tabloidization’ process of the media. Not only have tabloid newspapers gone ‘downmarket’ but also both quality broadsheet papers and television broadcasters have ‘dumbed down’. The article highlights not only how the changing role of the manager has been partly due to changes in the media industry but also the impact managers themselves have had on media developments.     

The Super Bowl at 50 or L

Abstract

In the short span of a half-century the Super Bowl has grown from a modest championship game between two football leagues into an outsized mid-winter holiday co-produced by the National Football League and the combined efforts of the American advertising and television industries. It has grown from a one-day into a two-week festival featuring a vast range of events, parties, and a championship football game. Fifty years on, half of the population of the United States and a worldwide television audience participate in Super Bowl activities and festivities either live or virtually. Television, marketing, and a wide range of media platforms have aided and abetted the growth of this celebration of football and consumption. Although there are many ways to describe the Super Bowl it is the nineteenth century vocabulary of the economist Thorstein Veblen that best captures its essence. In Veblen’s words it is a case of ‘conspicuous consumption’ now running on steroids.     

Trends in aggressive play and refereeing among the top five European soccer leagues

Current trends suggest professional soccer is becoming less aggressive, with England often argued to have the most aggressive of the top European leagues. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in fouls and cards as indicators of aggressive play in the first divisions of England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain over the past decade. Number of fouls per match and per yellow card has decreased in all leagues since 2007/08, though attempted tackles per foul has not changed or has increased. A lack of substantial rule changes suggests players have become less aggressive in tackling as opposed to referees becoming more lenient. Total number of fouls and cards per match were consistently lower in the English Premier League, however attempted tackles per foul was higher. The data also demonstrate the notions of home advantage and potentially referee bias, since referees tended to call more fouls and award more cards to away teams. Lastly, number of attempted tackles per foul and yellow cards received exhibited the strongest correlations with final league position across the leagues. In conclusion, our data support that elite European soccer has become less aggressive and the English Premier League is the most aggressive league.     

我国足球裁判员管理现状与对策研究

运用文献资料法，专家访谈法，比较分析法对我国职业足球裁判员的管理现状－－裁判员的选派办法及原则，裁判员的监督体制，收支状况及裁判员的处罚等进行了论述，指出存在的一些主要问题，并从裁判员的选拔上岗、财产监察制度、俱乐部财务管理，司法介入力度、监督部门的独立性、“中超”的建立、裁判的职业化及舆论监督对我国裁判员的管理进行对策性研究，以期对我国足球的进一步深化改革有所裨益。     

The spillover effect from FDI in the English Premier League

Using data of 1992–2012, this paper considers the spillover effects resulting from the increased flow of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into the English Premier League focusing, in particular, on competitive balance, measures of football productivity and intrafootball spillovers. Results indicate that not only has the competitive balance in football been reduced but that overseas investment has impacted both upon the productivity of the clubs under foreign ownership and those which continue under domestic ownership. The empirical contribution of this paper indicates the relevance and importance of both spillover and FDI theory to that of the football industry.     

媒体快速发展环境下体育赛事转播权的发展路径研究

随着科技的发展,媒体形式已从纸媒发展到新媒体和传统媒体等繁多的传播形式,信息内容的价值和媒体传播的功能已经高度融合。从古至今,信息内容的变化并不大,无非是政治、经济、文化方面的内容。或许是由于科技发展的速度过快,导致了媒体运营的相关法律和盈利机制不够完善,造成了很多负面影响和问题。简单来说,就是媒体的发展速度虽然快但是根基却不够牢固。该文通过文献研究和案例分析等方法,对媒体在改革发展过程中对于体育赛事的转播进行了分析。内容具体分为以下几部分:第一部分,新媒体相关的概念及发展历史。第二部分,以英超转播权在国内的发展脉络为案例进行分析;第三部分,新媒体体育赛事版权运营的模式。第四部分,对于我国体育赛事转播及版权运营的策略及展望。     

甘肃省校园足球裁判发展路径研究

该文运用文献资料法、问卷调查法,通过调查甘肃省校园足球裁判的职业、裁判等级分布、学历现状,以及甘肃省校园足球裁判的后备人才储备、裁判员地域分布与裁判员讲师队伍培养现状,立足甘肃校园足球裁判发展实情,从推动裁判员队伍常态化建设、稳步提升校园足球裁判综合素质能力、完善校园足球裁判员队伍梯队建设、提高校园足球裁判待遇水平、加强甘肃足协和校园足球竞赛主管部门的交流等方面为切入点,制定出推动甘肃省校园足球裁判又好又快发展的策略,旨在为甘肃校园足球裁判发展提供理论支撑。     

Towards a model for measuring holistic performance of professional Football clubs

This paper introduces an experimental model to measure the holistic performance of professional football clubs. The model utilizes a selection of established financial and sporting indicators, which are weighted in accordance with their perceived relative importance and in relation to components of financial management and governing body regulations. The paper uses data pertaining to clubs competing in the English Premier League to demonstrate the outputs of the model. The authors argue that although the model is experimental, it still provides a useful platform to analyse performance of football clubs through further scientific investigation.     

Referee bias contributes to home advantage in English Premiership football

Officiating bias is thought to contribute to home advantage. Recent research has shown that sports with subjective officiating tend to experience greater home advantage and that referees' decisions can be influenced by crowd noise, but little work has been done to examine whether individual referees vary in their home bias or whether biased decisions contribute to overall home advantage. We develop an ordinal regression model to determine whether various measures of home advantage are affected by the official for the match and by crowd size while controlling for team ability. We examine 5244 English Premier League (EPL) match results involving 50 referees and find that home bias differs between referees. Individual referees give significantly different levels of home advantage, measured as goal differential between the home and away teams, although the significance of this result depends on one referee with a particularly high home advantage (an outlier). Referees vary significantly and robustly in their yellow card and penalty differentials even excluding the outlier. These results confirm that referees are responsible for some of the observed home advantage in the EPL and suggest that home advantage is dependent on the subjective decisions of referees that vary between individuals. We hypothesize that individual referees respond differently to factors such as crowd noise and suggest further research looking at referees' psychological and behavioural responses to biased crowds.     

Does english football warrant the rooney rule? assessing the thoughts of british asian coaches

This article examines the Rooney Rule and offers the thoughts of British Asian football coaches working in English football in response to this policy implementation. The Rooney Rule, first piloted by English Football League (EFL) clubs during the 2016–17 season, makes it compulsory for all 72 EFL clubs to interview at least one black, Asian or minority ethnic (BAME) candidate (if an application has been received) for all managerial and first-team coaching roles. And, on 9 January 2018, the Football Association revealed that they had also adopted the Rooney Rule for all coaching jobs relating to the England national team. Because English football harbours so few BAME coaches, calls for the Rooney Rule to be introduced in English football had started to increase in volume, and led to its trial inception. But, is this policy welcomed or opposed among British Asian coaches? What fundamental barriers does this policy overlook? Is English football ready for the Rooney Rule? And, do British Asian coaches, a group believed to benefit from this positive action policy, deem that this rule is the answer to help facilitate positive change? With the aid of empirical research, this article critically examines and assesses the potential impact of the Rooney Rule and recommends additional inclusionary practices.

Abbreviations: BAME: Black, Asian or Minority Ethnic; CBP: The Coach Bursary Programme; EFL: English Football League; EPL: English Premier League; HLCE: Higher Level Coach Education; FA: Football Association; FBL: Football Bowl Subdivision; LMA: League Managers Association; NFL: National Football League; PFA: Professional Footballers' Association; UEFA: Union of European Football Associations.     

英超足球俱乐部经营状况之研究

运用文献资料和逻辑分析等方法,对目前英超俱乐部的经营现况进行分析。英超俱乐部的经营方式主要包括自营和委托经营,委托经营主要是俱乐部委托英超公司的电视转播权谈判;自营包括俱乐部以球迷为核心的商业运作。英超俱乐部的经营内容包括冠名权、门票、广告收入、转播费、商业性比赛、球迷产品的开发和球员转会。其经营绩效主要体现在拓展海外市场、吸引资金、扩大俱乐部的影响力等方面。英超俱乐部的经营策略是以球迷为核心,在此基础上进行一系列的商业运作。总体上看英超俱乐部的经营呈良性运行的态势。