Transactional distance theory and total quality management in open and distance learning

Abstract

Although our perceptions regarding distance education (DE) have changed significantly, there still remains a perceived lack of quality in the development, management and delivery of DE programmes. Unfortunately, DE offered in developing countries depends largely on first and second-generation delivery modes and relies heavily on print as form of information dissemination. Thus, technological drawbacks are often hailed as the main reason for such setbacks. This article discusses the findings of a comparative study involving an education programme that runs as both a contact and a distance programme. The assessment indices include access, delivery and output, while the Transactional Distance Theory is adopted to ascertain the extent to which the theory accounts for excellence in a given programme. Findings clearly support the importance of the relationships between dialogue, structure and autonomy. However, the researchers proffer that the Transactional Distance Theory should apply not just to learning material, but to the totality of a given programme. Finally, suggestions on enhancing the total quality of programmes in this context include: the introduction of generic courses; provision of bursaries; introduction and decentralisation of pre-orientation programmes, provision of quality learning material; and workable tutoring and counseling systems.     

Meaningful learning from practice: web-based video in professional preparation programmes in university

Web-based video is one of the technologies which can support meaningful learning from practice – in addition to practical benefits such as accessibility of practices, flexibility in updating information, and incorporating video into multimedia resources. A multiple case study was set up on the use of a web-based video learning environment in two post-graduate teacher education programmes and two university Bachelor programmes. The later analysis of practice was reported by students to be the most valuable aspect. Teacher feedback was perceived as more helpful than peer feedback, characterising most peer feedback as pep-talk. Direct video observation is suggested to be insufficient for students’ reflection on conceptual questions and on a more general level of practical experience. Implications for the preparation for professional practice in the university context are indicated.     

Learner agency in language learning: the story of a distance learner of EFL in China

Learner agency plays a key role in self-regulated learning. Yet, there is a paucity of research into its role in the distance learning context. Using reflective narratives written by a distance learner of English in China, this longitudinal case study aims to investigate the ways in which learner agency mediates the language learning in the distance mode. Findings from the study suggest that agency has a major impact on learners’ self-efficacy, identity, motivation, and metacognition—four constructs which are instrumental in determining language learning success, in particular in the distance learning context. Analysis of the data indicates that positive changes in these four constructs, in turn, lead to further agentic engagement, hence forming a virtuous circle of mutual enhancement. Implications are discussed in relation to fostering distance learners’ goal awareness, enhancing their self-efficacy, maintaining their motivation, and encouraging metacognitive efforts.     

Differential effects of home and preschool learning environments on early language development

The present study is based on longitudinal data from a German early childhood education and care (ECEC) governmental initiative assessing children's grammatical and vocabulary development between 2;6 and 4;0 years (N = 1,331), quality of the home learning environment and quality of the preschool setting. Results showed that the quality of the home learning environment predicted development in grammatical skills, but not in receptive vocabulary at age 4, while the effects of preschool process quality showed similar relative impacts on both language outcomes. Further analyses revealed effects of accumulated advantages of preschool quality for children from medium‐ and high‐quality home learning environments in their vocabulary development. The results are compared with previous findings from the German ECEC context and discussed with respect to implications for policy efforts to improve ECEC quality and ways in which both learning environments act together on children's development.     

Content and timing of feedback in a web-based learning environment: effects on learning as a function of prior knowledge

This study investigated the effectiveness of different types of feedback content (elaborate versus global) and feedback timing (immediate versus delayed) for learning genetics in a web-based learning environment as a function of learners' prior knowledge. It was hypothesized that learning outcomes of students with low prior knowledge would be fostered by immediate elaborate feedback, whereas those of students with more prior knowledge would be enhanced by delayed global feedback. Students' perceptions of the feedback they received were explored. Results showed a significant positive effect of global feedback on learning outcomes for higher prior knowledge learners, although those who received elaborate feedback gave a higher appreciation rating. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for the design and delivery of feedback in web-based learning environments.     

LoColms: an innovative approach of enhancing traditional classroom form of education by promoting web-based distance learning in the poorer countries

There have been numerous attempts recently to promote technology based education (Shrestha, 1997) in the poorer third world countries, but so far all these have not provided a sustainable solution as they are either centered and controlled from abroad and relying solely on foreign donors for their sustenance or they are not web-based, which make distribution problematic, and some are not affordable by most of the local population in these places. In this paper we discuss an application, the Local College Learning Management System (LoColms), which we are developing, that is both sustainable and economical to suit the situation in these countries. The application is a web-based system, and aims at improving the traditional form of education by empowering the local universities. Its economicability comes from the fact that it is supported by traditional communication technology, the public switching telephone network system, PSTN, which eliminates the need for packet switched or dedicated private virtual networks (PVN) usually required in similar situations. At a later stage, we shall incorporate ontology and paging tools to improve resource sharability and storage optimization in the Proxy Caches (ProCa) and LoColms servers. The system is based on the client/server paradigm and its infrastructure consists of the PSTN, ProCa, with the learning centers accessing the universities by means of point-to-point protocol (PPP).     

Self-directed learning to develop autonomy in an online ESP community

Low foreign language achievers in vocational education often have a lack of learning strategies, a tendency to feel frustrated, and unwillingness to be involved. In order to develop vocational college students’ autonomy, this study integrated on-site workshops with an online learning community by means of self-directed learning English for specific purposes (ESP). The results show that the online ESP community developed students into autonomous learners by (1) employing resource-based approach to download learning materials for preview and review, (2) utilizing curriculum-based approach to view online photos for monitoring their role-play and interactions in the learning processes and taking e-assessment for evaluating learning progress, and (3) using technology-based approach for interacting with their peers. The students developed learner autonomy to achieve significant better learning outcomes in the post-test. It was implied that self-directed learning with little teacher intervention of integrating on-site and online learning community could develop learner autonomy in ESP.     

LoColms:an innovative approach of enhancing traditional classroom form of education by promoting web-based distance learning in the poorer countries

INTRODUCTIONEducationingeneralisatdifficultcrossroadsinmanydevelopingcountries,particularlytheleastdevelopedandlow incomecountries.Theemergenceofdistanceeducationprovidesanim portantwaytoaddresstheirconcern ,butforrea sonsrangingfromeconomicaspectstothele…     

Rethinking classroom-oriented instructional development models to mediate instructional planning in technology-enhanced learning environments

Although classroom-oriented instructional development (ID) models have the potential to help teachers think and plan for effective instruction with technology, research studies have shown that they are not widely employed. Many of these models have not factored in the complexities that teachers faced when planning for instruction in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELE). They also fail to facilitate teachers’ critical re-examination of their existing practices and exploration of other practices to take up the affordances of technologies for effective instruction. Adopting an activity theoretical perspective towards instructional planning in the TELE, this paper examines two existing ID models: Reiser and Dick [1996. Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. Boston: Allen and Bacon] and Morrison, Ross, and Kemp [2004. Designing effective instruction (4th ed.) New York: Wiley]. It then constructs a classroom-oriented expansive and reflective ID model that: (1) facilitates the teacher's re-examination of their existing practices to identify contradictions in his/her instructional planning process in the TELE; (2) treats the ID elements in a nonlinear and non-sequential way; (3) accounts for the decisions made by other participants in the TELE, especially students and other teachers; (4) supports teachers’ formulation of solutions to the contradictions and transforms practices to take up the affordances of technology in the TELE; and (5) recognizes the need for teachers to move beyond the current activity by reflecting upon it so as to enable the emergence of new norms of practice.     

When style meets pattern in mentoring talk: implications for student teacher community learning environments in practice teaching

This study investigates how mentor talk unfolds in a community of learners during an entire school year in the context of practice teaching in university teacher education. Specifically, it focuses on how emergent styles and patterns of mentor’s talk shaped power relations in the discourse, promoting different kinds of learning environments. Data collection included 23 video-recorded meetings of the learning community of 11 student teachers and a university mentor and 25 semi-structured interviews with all participants including the mentor. Findings show that styles and patterns of mentor talk are central to how a particular learning environment in a community develops. Implications for pre-service mentors’ roles in the context of student teacher learning in a community are discussed.     

Students' perceptions toward the use of the digital library in weekly web-based distance learning assignments portion of a hybrid programme

This study attempted to investigate students’ perceptions toward the use of the digital library in weekly web‐based distance learning assignments portion of a hybrid instructional programme. Attention was given to three variables—age, gender, and prior experience with the Internet. A Likert‐type instrument consisting of 10 items was designed to collect information about students’ perceptions toward the use of digital library. The subjects of this study were 154 students enrolled in an undergraduate hybrid programme in management at a medium‐sized university in the Midwest, USA. Collected data were analysed using ANOVA. The overall results suggest that students had positive perceptions toward the use of the digital library. Age was found to be an insignificant factor. However, gender and prior experience with the Internet were found to be significant factors. Males had significantly higher positive perceptions toward using the digital library. Students who had more prior experience with the Internet had significantly higher positive perceptions toward using the digital library. Implications for practice are discussed and recommendations are made for future research.     

Matching/mismatching in web-based learning: a perspective based on cognitive styles and physiological factors

Cognitive styles have been regarded as a crucial factor that affects the effectiveness of web-based learning (WBL). Previous research indicated that educational settings that match with students' cognitive styles can enhance students' learning performance, which is, however, linked to their emotion. Various physiological signals can be applied to measure emotion but the pulse is perhaps the most effective indicator. Thus, we conduct an exploratory research, which looks for a link between emotion and the matching/mismatching instructional approach with the condition of cognitive styles through a continuous pulse rate monitoring. The matching/mismatching instructional approach was delivered via a WBL system, which includes an index version and map version. The pulses of individual learners are collected by using a non-intrusive sensor. Our results indicate that the matching condition enables learners to feel more positive emotions than the mismatching condition, and is also linked to better learning performance.     

Effective usage of learning analytics: what do practitioners want and where should distance learning institutions be going?

ABSTRACT

The implementation of learning analytics may empower distance learning institutions to provide real-time feedback to students and teachers. Given the leading role of the Open University UK (OU) in research and application of learning analytics, this study aims to share the lessons learned from the experiences of 42 participants from a range of faculty, academic and professional positions, and expertise with learning analytics. Furthermore, we explored where distance learning institutions should be going next in terms of learning analytics adoption. The findings from the Learning Analytics User Stories (LAUS) workshop indicated four key areas where more work is needed: communication, personalisation, integrated design, and development of an evidence-base. The workshop outputs signalled the aspiration for an integrated analytics system transcending the entire student experience, from initial student inquiry right through to qualification completion and into life-long learning. We hope that our study will spark discussion on whether (or not) distance learning institutions should pursue the dream of an integrated, personalised, and evidence-based learning analytics system that clearly communicates useful feedback to staff and students, or whether this will become an Orwellian nightmare.     

Enhanced student learning in accounting utilising web-based technology,peer-review feedback and reflective practices: a learning community approach to assessment

Higher education is becoming a major driver of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy. Maintaining the competitive edge has seen an increase in public accountability of higher education institutions through the mechanism of ranking universities based on the quality of their teaching and learning outcomes. As a result, assessment processes are under scrutiny, creating tensions between standardisation and measurability and the development of creative and reflective learners. These tensions are further highlighted in the context of large undergraduate subjects, learner diversity and time-poor academics and students. Research suggests that high level and complex learning is best developed when assessment, combined with effective feedback practices, involves students as partners in these processes. This article reports on a four-phase, cross-institution and cross-discipline project designed to embed peer-review processes as part of the assessment in two large, under-graduate accounting classes. Using a social constructivist view of learning, which emphasises the role of both teacher and learner in the development of complex cognitive understandings, we undertook an iterative process of peer review. Successive phases built upon students’ feedback and achievements and input from language/learning and curriculum experts to improve the teaching and learning outcomes.     

Shifting the focus from motivated learners to motivating distributed environments: a review of 40 years of published motivation research in Distance Education

ABSTRACT

This article reviews motivation research published in Distance Education since 1980, highlighting the major foci of investigation and reflecting on past findings. A major trend was that past research has focused predominantly on learners’ motivational attributes using sociocognitive models of motivation. We therefore have developed a good understanding of motivating variables such as self-efficacy and their power in engaging learners. However, this can be problematic because sociocognitive research situates motivation within an individualistic paradigm with limited attention given to examining whether learning supports and instructional designs in open and distance learning mediate and motivate learning engagement. Building on the review, this article seeks to shift the research attention from whether learners are motivated to crafting an open and distance learning system that is motivating and engaging by tapping into multiple motivation sources available beyond the confines of an individualistic frame.     

Embracing distance education in a blended learning model: challenges and prospects

Abstract

Distance education reaches out to non-traditional students in geographically dispersed locations, who are unable to attend face-to-face classes. Contact institutions have been quick to realise the many advantages of distance (online) learning, such as easy access to learning materials, interactive activities, assessment and communication tools. However, the path to anything approaching dual-mode provision has not been without obstacles. In South Africa in the early 2000s, the Council on Higher Education reinforced the mandate of distance education universities and decreed that contact institutions should not encroach on this territory. Subsequently, various frameworks and guidelines emerged which can inform current consideration of dual-mode provision. This practitioner report presents two case studies (University of Pretoria, South Africa; and University of Oxford, United Kingdom) which explore the implications for contact institutions in expanding their provision to include distance education.     

Metamorphosis in distance learning: Setting new trends in special needs education by addressing existing curriculum challenges

Abstract

This paper describes the participatory development of a new curriculum for an Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) (Inclusive and Special Needs Education) programme in the Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria. Several challenges in the existing programme necessitated curriculum re-design and development. These challenges included responding to policies regarding inclusive and special needs education; responding to revised higher education frameworks; revisiting the structure and content of modules in order to improve articulation; addressing an anticipated increase in student enrolment and a changing student profile; and incorporating current trends in distance education service delivery. Partners in this collaborative curriculum initiative included the Unit for Distance Education, the Department of Educational Psychology, the Department for Education Innovation and the South African Institute of Distance Education (SAIDE). Insights derived from this paper could possibly inform similar curriculum development initiatives, as well as extend knowledge on open and distance learning service delivery, in particular for in-service teacher training.     

Analysing teacher professional development through professional dialogue: an investigation into a university–school partnership project on enquiry learning

The paper considers data in one Higher Education Institution (HEI) from written reports and from interviews with trainee teachers and their teachers charged with the assessment of one training standard for secondary Initial Teacher Training in England: Professional Values and Practice. It explores the extent to which four elements of this standard can be measured as outcomes of performance. It reveals that assessment judgements draw on a wide range of evidence and are often subjective, context‐specific and broadly interpreted. In their current form these statements do not lend themselves easily to assessment. Recommendations include greater clarity in the statements about what might be expected of a beginning teacher in terms of particular professional competences as performance statements; opportunities for assessment in relation to a ‘developing professionalism’ rather than ‘managed professionalism’ (and compliance); and a broader framework that can take account of two dimensions in particular: (1) creating an environment for pupil learning and (2) teacher professionalism.     

Preservice teachers’ perceptions of an ICT-rich learning environment: Development of an instrument

This article reports the development of an instrument to measure preservice teachers’ perceptions of the Study Landscape (SLS), which is an ICT-infused learning environment that encourages preservice teachers to direct their own learning to build a two-way relationship between theory and teaching practice. This study comprised a qualitative and quantitative part. Six factors derived from interviews with users formed the basis of the instrument: (1) Support of Learners’ Initiatives; (2) Support of Information Searches; (3) Support of Interaction; (4) Relationship with Fellow Students; (5) Relationship with Teacher Educators; and (6) Relationship with SLS Staff. Once developed, the questionnaire was responded to by 186 students. Analysis of the data supported five out of six factors.     

Teaching gender studies via open and distance learning in South Africa

The University of South Africa (UNISA) has recently redesigned its honors degree in Gender Studies. The course design team members have been mindful of three key factors while redesigning this degree. First, we are aligning our course design with the demands of open and distance learning (ODL) and UNISA’s institutional move to online delivery of all teaching materials. Second, we are guided by the theoretical principles of feminist pedagogy. Third, we are committed to producing graduates who can take on the challenge of being gender change agents in a country with an escalating rate of gender-based violence. This article charts the development of the Gender Studies curricular initiative at UNISA with reference to the pedagogical insights provided by feminist scholarship on teaching, learning, and technology. We hope that our experience will provide insight into the parameters and process of creating an effective program in Gender Studies within an ODL context.