Somatotypes of weight lifters

The present paper reviews published studies on the body shape of weight lifters. The differences between the somatotype ratings of weight lifters studied using the Sheldon and the Heath-Carter methods, and the differences between performance levels and age groups of weight lifters are discussed. The differences in mean somatoplots among the weight lifters studied as a whole group, weight lifters divided into two, three or four groups according to body weight, and weight lifters considered according to the official weight classes, are assessed. Weight lifters in the lighter weight classes are found to be ectomorphic or balanced mesomorphs, while those in the heavier weight classes tend to be endomorphic mesomorphs. Ectomorphy decreases, whereas mesomorphy and endomorphy increase with weight class. When three age groups of weight lifters were compared within each weight class, the same pattern of differences between ages occurs. The younger lifters in each weight class have higher endomorphy and lower mesomorphy than the senior lifters. Ectomorphy is higher in the younger lifters below the weight class of 82.5 kg. Since significant differences in all three somatotype components between 10 weight classes of weight lifters and also within three age groups were noted, it will be necessary in future studies to consider the somatotypes of weight lifters according to the official weight classes.     

男子健美运动员Heath-Carter体型特征及与肌力的相关性

目的:计算健美运动员Heath-Carter体型三因子值,统计三因子与肌肉力矩及输出功率的相关性,并分析影响因素。方法:确定60名男子健美运动员的体型类型;测量上、下肢及躯干肌的峰值屈、伸力矩;分别以2.5、5、7.5、10、12.5、15%体重比递增负荷完成自行车蹬车运动,记录每种负荷下的最大输出功率。结果:健美运动员体型三因子平均值为4.40-7.21-1.31(0.31-1.07-0.12),坐标值为(-3.11,8.61),属于远离外因子、偏内胚层的中胚层类型。肌肉力矩和输出功率均与内因子不相关,与中因子呈正相关,与外因子呈负相关。结论:中、外因子影响肌肉力矩和功率输出,对肌肉造型起主要作用。由于内因子值较高且与肌肉收缩能力并不相关,提示不宜将健美训练作为减脂的主要手段。     

Body physique and proportionality of Brazilian female artistic gymnasts

This study aimed to identify physique characteristics (anthropometry, somatotype, body proportionality) of Brazilian female artistic gymnasts, and to compare them across competitive levels (sub-elite versus non-elite) within competitive age-categories. Two hundred forty-nine female gymnasts (68 sub-elite; 181 non-elite) from 26 Brazilian gymnastics clubs, aged 9–20 years and split into four age-categories, were sampled. Gymnasts were assessed for 16 anthropometric traits (height, weight, lengths, widths, girths, and skinfolds); somatotype was determined according to Heath-Carter method, body fat was estimated by bioimpedance, and proportionality was computed based on the z-phantom strategy. Non-elite and sub-elite gymnasts had similar values in anthropometric characteristics, however non-elite had higher fat folds in all age-categories (P < 0.01). In general, mesomorphy was the salient somatotype component in all age-categories, and an increase in endomorphy, followed by a decrease in ectomorphy across age was observed. Regarding proportionality, profile similarity was found between sub-elite and non-elite within age-categories. In conclusion results suggest the presence of a typical gymnast’s physical prototype across age and competitive level, which can be useful to coaches during their selection processes in clubs and regional/national teams.     

Anthropometric profiles of elite older triathletes in the Ironman Brazil compared with those of young Portuguese triathletes and older Brazilians

The objective of this study was to describe the anthropometric profiles of elite older triathletes participating in the 2009 Ironman Brazil and to compare their somatotype, anthropometric and body composition characteristics with those of elite young triathletes and older non-athletes. The sample consisted of 64 males, divided into three groups: (1) older triathletes (n = 17), (2) young triathletes (n = 24), and (3) older non-athletes (n = 23). Somatotype was analysed according to the Carter and Heath ( 1990 ) method. Body mass index, sum of four skinfolds, percentage body fat, body fat mass, and fat-free mass were also estimated. Older non-athletes had higher endomorphy, sum of four skinfolds, fat percentage, and body fat mass than the athletes. Older athletes who participated in the Ironman and elite young triathletes had higher fat-free mass than older non-athletes. Older triathletes and older non-athletes were considered mainly endomorphic mesomorphs and young triathletes mainly ectomorphic mesomorphs. The findings that characterize the anthropometric profile of athletes in this sports modality could be used as a reference.     

Somatotype and size of elite female basketball players

The aim of this study was to compare the somatotype and size of elite female basketball players in terms of playing position and team performance. Anthropometry and somatotype data were collected on 168 players from 14 countries before the Women's World Basketball Championship, Australia, 1994. There were 64 guards (mean +/- s: age 25.4 +/- 3.3 years, height 1.72 +/- 0.06 m, mass 66.1 +/- 6.2 kg, somatotype = 2.9-3.9-2.6), 57 forwards (age 25.2 +/- 3.8 years, height 1.81 +/- 0.06 m, mass 73.3 +/- 5.9 kg, somatotype = 2.8-3.5-3.2) and 47 centres (age 24.1 +/- 3.1 years, height 1.90 +/- 0.06 m, mass 82.6 +/- 8.2 kg, somatotype = 3.2-3.1-3.4). Mean somatotypes by position were significantly different (F = 7.73, P < 0.01). Guards had greater mesomorphy than centres and less ectomorphy than forwards and centres. When discriminant function analysis was applied to endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy, age, height and mass, only height, mass and ectomorphy entered (Wilks' lambda = 0.351, F = 31.40, P < 0.000), 70% of the variance was accounted for, and 72% of players were correctly classified. In the four top versus four bottom teams, guards were taller and more ectomorphic, forwards were taller, with lower mesomorphy and higher ectomorphy, and centres did not differ. Thus there are some differences in somatotypes by position and team placing, but the combination of height, mass and ectomorphy provide the best differentiation by position.     

Anthropometric characteristics as discriminators of body-building success.

A total of 36 non-elite male body builders were observed at the time of competition. Their mean physical characteristics (+/- S.D.) were: age, 24.6 +/- 4.8 years; height, 174.4 +/- 6.7 cm; bodyweight, 80.3 +/- 11.0 kg. Their body composition values were: percentage body fat, 9.3 +/- 1.6%; fat-free mass, 72.8 +/- 9.8 kg. The mean somatotype for all subjects was: endomorphy, 2.3 +/- 0.6; mesomorphy, 6.2 +/- 0.9; ectomorphy, 1.2 +/- 0.6. The body proportions (cm) included: biacromial diameter/bi-iliac diameter, 1.463 +/- 0.132; torso length/height, 0.468 +/- 0.018; chest circumference/abdominal circumference, 1.345 +/- 0.059. The body builders in the present study were younger, had lower bodyweights, lower fat-free mass, lower mesomorphy ratings, smaller circumferences, and smaller skeletal dimensions than elite body builders reported in the scientific literature. When the body builders in the present study were divided into successful and unsuccessful groups based on actual competition results, a multiple-discriminant analysis found that biacromial diameter/bi-iliac diameter, torso length/height, chest circumference/abdominal circumference, percentage body fat, height, and bodyweight accounted for 80.6% of the explained variance. These data indicate that the success of a body builder can be accounted for in large part by easily obtained physical variables.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and competition level in world-class female gymnasts

Abstract

In this study the relationship between the digit ratio (2D:4D) and artistic gymnastics performance and competition level was investigated in a sample of Caucasian world-class female gymnasts (n = 145). The sample was divided into three competition events (compulsories, free work, final score). Within each event three performance groups (lowest, middle, and highest) were based on the competition scores gathered at the World Championships at Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in 1987. Lengths of the digits were measured on X-rays of the left hand. Several anthropometric dimensions were measured and from those measurements an androgyny index (Bayer & Bayley) and somatotype components (endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy) were calculated. Although significant differences in some anthropometric characteristics between the performance level groups within each competition event were observed, no significant differences in the 2D:4D ratios were found between the performance level groups, varying from 0.918 ± 0.020 to 0.924 ± 0.020. Also, no significant correlations were observed between the 2D:4D ratio and anthropometric, androgyny, and somatotype characteristics, r varying from r = –0.11 to r = +0.12. It can be concluded that in this sample the 2D:4D digit ratio, unlike other anthropometric characteristics, is not a discriminating factor for the performance in artistic gymnastics performance on a world-class level.     

Somatotype and size of elite female basketball players

The aim of this study was to compare the somatotype and size of elite female basketball players in terms of playing position and team performance. Anthropometry and somatotype data were collected on 168 players from 14 countries before the Women's World Basketball Championship, Australia, 1994. There were 64 guards (mean?±?s: age 25.4?±?3.3 years, height 1.72?±?0.06?m, mass 66.1?±?6.2?kg, somatotype?=?2.9?–?3.9?–?2.6), 57 forwards (age 25.2?±?3.8 years, height 1.81?±?0.06?m, mass 73.3?±?5.9?kg, somatotype?=?2.8?–?3.5?–?3.2) and 47 centres (age 24.1?±?3.1 years, height 1.90?±?0.06?m, mass 82.6?±?8.2?kg, somatotype?=?3.2?–?3.1?–?3.4). Mean somatotypes by position were significantly different (F?=?7.73, P?<?0.01). Guards had greater mesomorphy than centres and less ectomorphy than forwards and centres. When discriminant function analysis was applied to endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy, age, height and mass, only height, mass and ectomorphy entered (Wilks' λ?=?0.351, F?=?31.40, P?<?0.000), 70% of the variance was accounted for, and 72% of players were correctly classified. In the four top versus four bottom teams, guards were taller and more ectomorphic, forwards were taller, with lower mesomorphy and higher ectomorphy, and centres did not differ. Thus there are some differences in somatotypes by position and team placing, but the combination of height, mass and ectomorphy provide the best differentiation by position.     

The Effect of Depth Jumps and Weight Training on Leg Strength and Vertical Jump

Abstract

In recent years, a method of plyometrics (exercises that cause a rapid lengthening of a muscle prior to contraction) called depth jumping has become a part of the training routine of many athletes. Two experiments are described in which the effectiveness of the exercises is examined. In Experiment 1, undergraduate students in beginning weight training classes trained with three different jumping programs: (1) maximum vertical jumps, (2) 0.3 m depth jumps, and (3) 0.75 m and 1.10 m depth jumps. In addition, all groups also lifted weights. In Experiment 2, a weight training class and the volleyball team at Brigham Young University-Hawaii were divided into two groups. One group lifted weights and performed 0.75 and 1.10 m depth jumps. The other group only lifted weights. In Experiment 1, the three training programs resulted in increases in one repetition maximum (1 RM) squat strength, isometric knee extension strength, and in vertical jump; however, there were no significant differences between treatments. In Experiment 2, all groups made significant increases in vertical jump, except the group of weight lifters, who did no jumping. It was concluded that depth jumps are effective but not more effective than a regular jumping routine.     

Effect of Weight Training on Self-Concept: A Profile of those Influenced Most

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine the effect of weight training on the self-concepts of college males. Another purpose was to identify the types of males, relative to measures of extroversion, neuroticism, body cathexis, somatotype, and muscular strength, who experience the most improvement in self-concept during a lifting program. Subjects of the experimental group (n = 113) trained with weights twice each week for 16 weeks, while controls (n = 127) were educated relative to personal health concepts. The results revealed significant posttest differences in global, internal, and external self-concept between the groups, confirming the hypothesis that regular weight training is positively associated with the improvement of self-concept. Pretest body cathexis, self-concept, and neuroticism scores were significant predictors of global self-concept change from the pretest to the posttest, whereas pretest measures of extroversion, somatotype, and muscular strength were not. Changes in neuroticism, body cathexis, and muscular strength scores were significant predictors of self-concept change, while extroversion change was not, indicating that the positive association between weight training and self-concept enhancement is multivariately determined, and that some types of males experience more improvement of self-concept than others during a weight training regime.     

举重运动员赛前体重控制方法论

举重比赛是按运动员体重级别进行的,如何科学有效的控制运动员赛前体重,同时,又不影响运动员成绩的发挥,是举重界一直关心的问题。因此,提出合理的赛前快速减体重的方法为运动员的成绩能更稳定的发挥,教练员在赛前及时了解,掌握运动员降体重后对体能的影响提出建议与参考。     

青少年举重运动员赛前降体重若干问题的探讨

举重竞赛是按体重的大小来分级别进行比赛,因此降体重是比赛中的关键环节,不合理的降体重会对运动员的身体造成伤害,使运动能力下降,对比赛成绩的发挥有很大的影响,提出合理的赛前快速减体重和比赛期间营养补充的方法,为运动员的成绩能更稳定地发挥,教练员在赛前及时了解、掌握运动员降体重后对体能的影响和比赛期间的营养补充,提出建议与参考。     

Standardization indices of cardiac hypertrophy in weight lifters

In order to investigate further the use of standardization procedures to determine training effects on cardiac dimension and function, two groups of subjects were analysed noninvasively. A control group of sedentary men (n = 7) and an experimental group of weight lifters (n = 12) volunteered for a standard M-mode echocardiographic assessment. Indices of cardiac function as well as absolute left ventricular dimensions and left ventricular mass were similar between the groups. Standardizing for body surface area and body weight separated the groups. The weight lifters were shown to have a more muscular left ventricular posterior wall. The weight lifters also demonstrated a dilated left ventricle when indexing for body surface area. All other dimensional and volumetric indices were non-significant. The present investigation underlines the need for matching control and experimental groups to biometric variables in order to avoid misinterpreting cardiac enlargement. There is evidence for a true relative hypertrophy in weight lifters as indicated by similar absolute cardiac dimensions and similar biometric variables. Therefore, when evaluating athletes engaged in a chronic pressure overload, cardiac hypertrophy indices should consider body surface area (BSA), body weight and lean body weight (LBW). Future work in this field should incorporate rigorous controls on all biometric variables for better interpretation of hypertrophy in relative or absolute terms.     

出生体重对幼儿期形态发育的影响

1988年3～6岁的儿童男女共1200人,按其出生时的体重分组,比较各组的身高、体重等7项形态指标及指数的变化,发现出生体重对幼儿期的形态发育是有影响的。主要为出生体重大者生长发育处于领先地位,出生体重小者生长发育落后于其它儿童。     

The effect of morphological and functional variables on ranking position of professional junior Basque surfers

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyse the association of morphology as well as functional outcomes during a paddling test with ranking position (RP) of competitive junior surfers. Ten male surfers (age, mean 17.60, s=2.06 years) performed a maximum incremental test on a modified ergometer (Ergo Vasa Swim, USA) to determine, per unit of weight, the relative heart rate at lactate threshold (RHR_LT) and at onset of blood lactate accumulation (RHR_OBLA) and the relative power output at LT (RW_LT) and at OBLA (RW_OBLA). Anthropometrics were weight, height and sum of six skinfolds (subscapular, triceps, supraspinal, abdominal, anterior thigh and calf) and Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotypes. A stepwise multiple regression was constructed to model and predict RP. Surfers shared a relative short stature and light weight, with a broader range of skinfold thickness (174.30, s=0.07 cm; 66.73, s=5.91 kg; 57.03, s=12.29 mm) and mean somatotype was ectomorphic-mesomorph: 2.20–4.36–3.09 (Category 2). Two model equations were possible: (A) RP = ? 244.550 RW_OBLA+262.787; (B) RP = ? 217.028·RW_OBLA+31.21·endomorphy + 169.16 with 63.1% and 83% of variance explained, respectively. A hierarchical cluster analysis on the Euclidean distances of the variables in model B also distinguished between upper and lower ranking groups. RW_OBLA was more useful than endomorphy, anthropometric measures and also than the other functional outcomes to predict RPs. RW_OBLA and endomorphy should be considered important variables that may influence the success of these young competitive surfers.     

Sexual dimorphism in the physiques of World Championship divers

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate sexual dimorphism in male (n=43) and female (n=39) springboard and platform divers at the 1991 World Diving Championships in Perth, Western Australia. In addition to recording the age, height and body mass of each diver, measurements were taken of 8 skinfolds, 13 girths, 8 breadths and depths, and 11 lengths. The derived variables were somatotype, sum of 6 skinfolds (SUM6) and height-adjusted proportional z-scores. The mean (±s) values for the males were: age, 22.2±4.6 years; height, 171±9 cm; body mass, 66.7±10.2 kg; somatotype, 2.0–5.3–2.4±0.5–1.0–0.8; SUM6, 45.9 + 11.4 mm. For the females, these values were: age, 20.9±3.8 years; height, 161±6 cm; body mass, 53.7±5.5 kg; somatotype, 2.8–3.8–2.8±0.7–1.0–0.9; SUM6, 65.6±17.0 mm. The males were taller, heavier, more mesomorphic, less endo-morphic and had a smaller SUM6 than the females (P<0.01). A series of discriminant function analyses were applied to groups of variables. Wilks' lambda and the overall F-ratio were highly significant (P<0.001), with correct classification of sex reaching 84–99%. The best combinations of variables were as follows: (1) absolute size, 3 girths + SUM6, or body mass + SUM6 + height (Wilks' lambda=0.17–0.35); (2) relative size, 2 girths + SUM6 + body mass. Combinations of breadths and lengths, skinfolds, or somatotype components, were less successful, with 84–87% classified correctly (Wilks' lambda=0.40–0.48). We conclude that, in addition to the expected absolute size differences, sexual dimorphism between male and female divers can be explained by differences in relative size, skinfolds and somatotype, and that these differences may have implications for coaching and selection in diving.     

试论举重运动员的选材

从身高、体重、身体形态、遗传因素等八个方面,分析、讨论了举重运动员的选材问题。着重论述了怎样的身体形态结构有利于举重运动成绩的提高和选材时对少年儿童举重运动员的具体要求。     

广西重竞技小级别优秀运动员体成份调查分析

对广西重竞技小级别5个项目48名运动员进行体成份分析,结果发现:男子项目中,举重运动员的BMI、体脂百分比及腰臀比均明显高于古典跤、自由跤和拳击,差异有显著性(P<0.05);女子项目中,BMI和腰臀比存在明显差异(P<0.05);提示举重运动员应加强体成份控制,同时,有必要建立不同运动项目体成份的参照标准。     

营养措施对女子举重运动员减控体重期间血液指标的影响

研究目的:研究运动员训练中慢速减体重、赛前快速降体重和赛前体能恢复的营养学干预方法与手段对血液指标的影响,促进减体重后体能的快速恢复。研究方法:女子举重队的12名运动员随机分成实验组和对照组,每组6人。实验组和对照组运动员进行统一的运动训练并采用等同能量的饮食方案,所不同是实验组运动员在减重期间服用减重棒、维生素和电解质的运动营养食品,在减重后的恢复期服用快速的能量补充制剂和维生素电解质强化运动营养食品,而对照组运动员服用相应的安慰剂。实验组和对照组运动员分别在减重前后进行血液指标的测试。研究结果:在快减后恢复阶段实验组的肌酸激酶和血尿素显著低于对照组,血红蛋白则显著高于对照组,两组之间的血清睾酮水平无显著性差异。在快减和恢复阶段,实验组的血清钾、钠、钙浓度显著高于对照组。在减控体重期间,实验组运动员的饥饿度明显低于对照组。结论:科学的营养干预措施可保证按既定的目标减轻体重,并维持良好的血红蛋白水平,降低血清肌酸激醇和血尿素的水平;合理的补充营养强化剂可维持血清无机离子的水平,保证机体内环境的稳定。     

Derivation of an Age and Weight Handicap for the 5K Run

The adverse effect of increasing age and/or body weight on distance run performance has been well documented. Accordingly, nearly all five kilometer (5K) road races employ age categories and, sometimes, a heavier body weight classification. Problems with such conventions include small numbers of runners within older age categories and the advantage given to the lightest runners within each weight category. We developed a 5K Handicap (5KH), a model that calculates an adjusted run time based on the inputs of actual 5K run time, age, and body weight for men and women. This adjusted time, then, can be compared between runners of different ages and body weights. The purpose of this paper was to explain, in detail, the derivation of the 5KH formula using published theoretical and empirical findings on age, body weight and distance run time relationships. To our knowledge, the 5KH is the first such model and overcomes the problems associated with being heavier within one weight class and having too few runners in certain age categories. We are currently undertaking large-scale validation studies and evaluation of its race day implementation.