An anthropometric analysis of elite Australian track cyclists

An anthropometric analysis was conducted on 35 elite male Australian track cyclists having a mean age of 22.6 years and who had been competing on average for 9 years. The relationship of anthropometric parameters to both bicycle saddle height and cycling performance was also investigated. Subjects were allocated, for purposes of comparison, to an endurance or sprint group on the basis of their competitive event. The group members in total were ectomorphic mesomorphs of height 178 +/- 4.8 cm and weight 72.5 +/- 6.6 kg on average. Percentage of saddle height to lower limb length averaged 99 +/- 1.6%, and significant correlations existed between strength and both body mass (r = 0.57) and thigh girth (r = 0.55). No significant correlation was seen between any anthropometric parameter and performance in an individual event. Cyclists in the spint group were heavier (76.2 +/- 7.4 vs. 70.0 +/- 4.7 kg, P less than 0.01) and stronger (258 +/- 44.4 vs. 216 +/- 30.5 Nm, P less than 0.01), and had larger chest (98.2 +/- 6.2 vs. 92.4 +/- 2.9 cm, P less than 0.01), arm (33.0 +/- 2.2 vs. 30.7 +/- 1.6 cm, P less than 0.01), thigh (57.5 +/- 3.4 vs. 54.3 +/- 2.5 cm, P less than 0.01) and calf girths (37.8 +/- 1.7 vs. 36.2 +/- 1.9 cm, P less than 0.05) than cyclists in the endurance group. They were also more mesomorphic (5.3 +/- 0.7 vs. 4.7 +/- 0.8, P less than 0.05) and less ectomorphic (2.3 +/- 0.9 vs. 2.9 +/- 0.6, P less than 0.05) than the endurance cyclists.     

10 weeks of heavy strength training improves performance-related measurements in elite cyclists

ABSTRACT

Elite cyclists have often a limited period of time available during their short preparation phase to focus on development of maximal strength; therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of 10-week heavy strength training on lean lower-body mass, leg strength, determinants of cycling performance and cycling performance in elite cyclists. Twelve cyclists performed heavy strength training and normal endurance training (E&S) while 8 other cyclists performed normal endurance training only (E). Following the intervention period E&S had a larger increase in maximal isometric half squat, mean power output during a 30-s Wingate sprint (P < 0.05) and a tendency towards larger improvement in power output at 4 mmol ? L^?1 [la^?] than E (P = 0.068). There were no significant difference between E&S and E in changes in 40-min all-out trial (4 ± 6% vs. ?1 ± 6%, respectively, P = 0.13). These beneficial effects may encourage elite cyclists to perform heavy strength training and the short period of only 10 weeks should make it executable even in the compressed training and competition schedule of elite cyclists.     

The influence of short‐term endurance training on maximum oxygen uptake,submaximum endurance and the ability to perform brief,maximal exercise

The hypothesis that endurance training impairs sprinting ability was examined. Eight male subjects undertook a 30‐s sprint test on a cycle ergometer before and after 6 weeks of cycling training for endurance. Maximum oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) and submaximum endurance were determined to evaluate the influence of the training regimen on endurance performance. Endurance was defined as the time to exhaustion at a relative exercise intensity of 85% VO₂ max. Maximum oxygen uptake was increased by 18% post‐training (3.29 ± 0.291 min^–1 versus 3.89±0.491 min^–1; P <0.01), but endurance at the same absolute work rate as pre‐training was increased by more than 200% (32.2 ±11.4 min versus 97.8 + 27.3 min; P <0.01). These improvements were accompanied by changes in the cardiovascular and metabolic responses to standard, submaximum exercise. Despite the improvements in endurance, neither performance during the cycle sprint test nor the increase in blood lactate concentration during the sprint was influenced by endurance training. For short‐term cycling training, these findings reinforce the concept of training specificity whilst demonstrating that decrements in sprint performance are not a necessary consequence of improved endurance.     

Physiological responses to maximal intermittent exercise: Differences between endurance‐trained runners and games players

Abstract

Six games players (GP) and six endurance‐trained runners (ET) completed a standardized multiple sprint test on a non‐motorized treadmill consisting often 6‐s all‐out sprints with 30‐s recovery periods. Running speed, power output and oxygen uptake were determined during the test and blood samples were taken for the determination of blood lactate and pH. Games players tended to produce a higher peak power output (GP vs ET: 839 ± 114 vs 777 ± 89 W, N.S.) and higher peak speed (GP vs ET: 7.03 ± 0.3 vs 6.71 ± 0.3 m s^‐1, N.S.), but had a greater decrement in mean power output than endurance‐trained runners (GP vs ET: 29.3 ± 8.1% vs 14.2 ± 11.1%, P < 0.05). Blood lactate after the test was higher for the games players (GP vs ET: 15.2 ± 1.9 vs 12.4 ± 1.7 mM, P < 0.05), but the decrease in pH was similar for both groups (GP vs ET: 0.31 ± 0.08 vs 0.28 ± 0.08, N.S.). Strong correlations were found between peak blood lactate and peak speed (r = 0.90, P < 0.01) and between peak blood lactate and peak power fatigue (r = 0.92, P<0.01). The average increase in oxygen uptake above pre‐exercise levels during the sprint test was greater for endurance‐trained athletes than for the games players (ET vs GP: 35.0 ± 2.2 vs 29.6 ± 3.0 ml kg^‐1 min^‐1 , P < 0.05), corresponding to an average oxygen uptake per sprint (6‐s sprint and 24 s of subsequent recovery) of 67.5 ± 2.9% and 63.0 ± 4.5% VO ₂ max respectively (N.S.). A modest relationship existed between the average increase in oxygen uptake above pre‐exercise values during the sprint test and mean speed fatigue (r = ‐0.68, P < 0.05). Thus, the greater decrement in performance for the games players may be related to higher glycolytic rates as reflected by higher lactate concentrations and to their lower oxygen uptake during the course of the 10 sprints.     

Kinematic and kinetic differences in the execution of vertical jumps between people with good and poor ankle joint dorsiflexion

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to investigate the kinematic and kinetic differences in the execution of vertical jumps between individuals with good and poor ankle dorsiflexion. Fifteen physical education students were assigned to the flexible group (FG), while another 15 were assigned to the inflexible group (IFG). The two groups executed countermovement jumps (CMJ) and drop jumps from a 60 cm height (DJ60). For the CMJ, the FG jumped higher (32.0 ± 4.0 cm vs. 30.2 ± 4.9 cm, P = 0.27) and used a greater range of motion in all leg joints. The IFG jumpers raised their heels off the ground and had a greater horizontal distance between the centre of mass of the trunk and the centre of the hip joint (L_CMh 25.6 ± 3.4 cm vs. 30.9 ± 4.3 cm, P < 0.001). In the DJ60 the FG jumped higher (22.4 ± 5.9 cm vs. 19.5 ± 4.6 cm, P = 0.14) with a greater vertical shift of the body centre of mass (BCM) (S = 0.45 ± 0.11 cm vs. 0.36 ± 0.05 cm, P < 0.01) and better joint coordination. The IFG jumpers changed the position of their trunk and heels depending on the jump type. Trainers should reconsider the technical issues of vertical jumps according to the flexibility of the ankle joint.     

Olympic lightweight and open-class rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics

Abstract

Rowers competing at the 2000 Olympic Games were measured for 38 anthropometric dimensions. The aim was to identify common physical characteristics that could provide a competitive advantage. The participants included 140 male open-class rowers, 69 female open-class rowers, 50 male lightweight rowers, and 14 female lightweight rowers. Body mass, stature, and sitting height were different (P < 0.01) between the open-class and lightweight rowers, as well as a comparison group of healthy young adults (“non-rowers”, 42 males, 71 females), for both sexes. After scaling for stature, the open-class rowers remained proportionally heavier than the non-rowers, with greater proportional chest, waist, and thigh dimensions (P < 0.01). Rowers across all categories possessed a proportionally smaller hip girth than the non-rowers (P < 0.01), which suggested the equipment places some constraints on this dimension. Top-ranked male open-class rowers were significantly taller and heavier and had a greater sitting height (P < 0.01) than their lower-ranked counterparts. They were also more muscular in the upper body, as indicated by a larger relaxed arm girth and forearm girth (P < 0.01). For the male lightweight rowers, only proportional thigh length was greater in the best competitors (P < 0.01). In the female open-class rowers, skinfold thicknesses were lower in the more highly placed competitors (P < 0.01). In conclusion, the rowers in this sample demonstrated distinctive physical characteristics that distinguish them from non-rowers and other sports performers.     

The effect of heavy resistance exercise on repeated sprint performance in youth athletes

This investigation assessed whether prior heavy resistance exercise would improve the repeated sprint performance of 16 trained youth soccer players (Age 17.05 ± 0.65 years; height 182.6 ± 8.9 cm; body mass 77.8 ± 8.2 kg). In session 1, individual 1 repetition max was measured utilising a squat movement. In sessions 2 and 3, participants performed a running-based repeated anaerobic sprint test with and without prior heavy resistance exercise of 91% of their 1 repetition max. Times were recorded for each of the 6 sprints performed in the repeated sprint test and summed to provide total time. T-tests compared the two exercise conditions via differences in corresponding sprint times and total time. Analysis revealed significantly reduced total time with use of heavy resistance exercise (33.48 (±1.27) vs. 33.59 (±1.27); P = 0.01). Sprints 1 (P = 0.05) and 2 (P = 0.02) were also faster in the heavy resistance exercise condition (5.09 (±0.16) vs. 5.11 (±0.16) and 5.36 (±0.24) vs. 5.45 (±0.26) seconds respectively) although no other differences were shown. Findings demonstrate improved sprint times of trained adolescent soccer players after heavy resistance exercise although benefits appear not as sustained as in adult participants.     

Saddle height effects on pedal forces,joint mechanical work and kinematics of cyclists and triathletes

Abstract

The effects of saddle height on pedal forces and joint kinetics (e.g. mechanical work) are unclear. Therefore, we assessed the effects of saddle height on pedal forces, joint mechanical work and kinematics in 12 cyclists and 12 triathletes. Four sub-maximal 2-min cycling trials (3.4 W/kg and 90 rpm) were conducted using preferred, low and high saddle heights (±10° knee flexion at 6 o'clock crank position from the individual preferred height) and an advocated optimal saddle height (25° knee flexion at 6 o'clock crank position). Right pedal forces and lower limb kinematics were compared using effect sizes (ES). Increases in saddle height (5% of preferred height, ES=4.6) resulted in large increases in index of effectiveness (7%, ES=1.2) at the optimal compared to the preferred saddle height for cyclists. Greater knee (11–15%, ES=1.6) and smaller hip (6–8%, ES=1.7) angles were observed at the low (cyclists and triathletes) and preferred (triathletes only) saddle heights compared to high and optimal saddle heights. Smaller hip angle (5%, ES=1.0) and greater hip range of motion (9%, ES=1.0) were observed at the preferred saddle height for triathletes compared to cyclists. Changes in saddle height up to 5% of preferred saddle height for cyclists and 7% for triathletes affected hip and knee angles but not joint mechanical work. Cyclists and triathletes would opt for saddle heights <5 and <7%, respectively, within a range of their existing saddle height.     

Assessment of the power performance of racing cyclists

A 30‐s ‘all‐out’ power protocol was studied in four groups of racing cyclists including internationals (n = 8), Category 1 (n = 10), Category 2 (n = 15) and Category 3 (n = 11). Following warm‐up each subject completed five trials interspersed by 3 min of low intensity exercise on an ergowheel racing cycle ergometry system at a power output of 15 W kg^–1 body weight, generated at 130 rev min^–1. Temporal indices of performance included delay time (DT) to achieve the power criterion, total time (TT) of the maintenance of the power criterion and the ratio of TT/DT. ‘Explosive’ leg strength was assessed from a vertical jump. The results indicated that international and Category 1 cyclists had lower DT (2.2 ± 0.1s and 2.1 +0.0s, respectively; P<0.05), higher TT (28.1 ±0.7s and 27.0+0.7s, respectively; P<0.05) and elevated TT/DT (12.8 and 12.9, respectively; P<0.01). ‘Explosive’ leg strength was also higher (P<0.05) in the internationals than in the other groups of cyclists. The protocol provides a sport‐related method for the assessment of short term endurance performance ability in racing cyclists which may be of value in identifying the anaerobic capability of individual cyclists.     

Effects of inertia correction and resistive load on fatigue during repeated sprints on a friction-loaded cycle ergometer

Abstract

Seven 6 s sprints with 30 s recovery between sprints were performed against two resistive loads: 50 (L50) and 100 (L100) g · kg^?1 body mass. Inertia-corrected and -uncorrected peak and mean power output were calculated. Corrected peak power output in corresponding sprints and the drop in peak power output relative to sprint 1 were not different in the two conditions, despite the fact that mean power output was 15–20% higher in L100 (P < 0.01). The effect of inertia correction on power output was more pronounced for the lighter load (L50), with uncorrected peak power output in sprint 1 being 42% lower than the corresponding corrected peak power output, while this was only 16% in L100. Fatigue assessed by the drop in uncorrected peak and mean power output in sprint 7 relative to sprint 1 was less compared with that obtained by corrected power values, especially in L50 (drop in uncorrected vs. corrected peak power output: 13.3 ± 2.2% vs. 23.1 ± 4.1%, P < 0.01). However, in L100, the difference between the drop in corrected and uncorrected mean power output in sprint 7 was much smaller (24.2 ± 3.1% and 21.2 ± 2.7%, P < 0.01), indicating that fatigue may be safely assessed even without inertia correction when a heavy load is used. In conclusion, when inertia correction is performed, fatigue during repeated sprints is unaffected by resistive load. When inertia correction is omitted, both power output and the fatigue profile are underestimated by an amount dependent on resistive load. In cases where inertia correction is not possible during a repeated sprints test, a heavy load may be preferable.     

Effect of water ingestion on endurance capacity during prolonged running

This study examined the influence of water ingestion on endurance capacity during submaximal treadmill running. Four men and four women with a mean (± S.E.) age of 21.4 ± 0.7 years, height of 169 + 2 cm, body mass of 63.1 ± 2.9 kg and VO ₂ max of 51.1 ± 1.8 ml kg^?1 min^?1, performed two randomly assigned treadmill runs at 70% VO ₂ max to exhaustion. No fluid was ingested during one trial (NF‐trial), whereas a single water bolus of 3.0 ml kg^?1 body mass was ingested immediately pre‐exercise and serial feedings of 2.0 ml kg^?1 body mass were ingested every 15 min during exercise in a fluid replacement trial (FR‐trial). Run time for the NF‐trial was 77.7 ± 7.7 min, compared to 103 ± 12.4 min for the FR‐trial (P<0.01). Body mass (corrected for water ingestion) decreased by 2.0 ± 0.2% in the NF‐trial and 2.7 ± 0.2% in the FR‐trial (P<0.01), while plasma volume decreased by 1.1 ± 1.1% and 3.5 ± 1.1% in the two trials respectively (N.S.). However, these apparent differences in circulatory volume were not associated with differences in rectal temperature. Respiratory exchange ratios indicated increased carbohydrate metabolism (73% vs 64% of total energy expenditure) and suppressed fat metabolism after 75 min of exercise in the NF‐trial compared with the FR‐trial (NF‐trial, 0.90 ± 0.01; FR‐trial, 0.86 ± 0.03; P<0.01). Blood glucose concentrations were similar in both trials, while blood lactate concentrations were higher in the NF‐trial at the end of exercise (4.83 ± 0.34 vs 4.18 ± 0.38 mM; P<0.05). In summary, water ingestion during prolonged running improved endurance capacity.     

Conference communications

Abstract

The objective of this study was to provide anthropometric, physiological, and performance characteristics of an elite international handball team. Twenty-one elite handball players were tested and categorized according to their playing positions (goalkeepers, backs, pivots, and wings). Testing consisted of anthropometric and physiological measures of height, body mass, percentage body fat and endurance ([Vdot]O_2max), performance measures of speed (5, 10, and 30 m), strength (bench press and squat), unilateral and bilateral horizontal jumping ability, and a 5-jump horizontal test. Significant differences were found between player positions for some anthropometric characteristics (height and percentage body fat) but not for the physiological or performance characteristics. Strong correlations were noted between single leg horizontal jumping distances with 5-, 10-, and 30-m sprint times (r = 0.51–0.80; P < 0.01). The best predictors of sprint times were single leg horizontal jumping with the dominant leg and the distance measured for the 5-jump test, which when combined accounted for 72% of the common variance associated with sprint ability. In conclusion, performance abilities between positions in elite team-handball players appear to be very similar. Single leg horizontal jumping distance could be a specific standardized test for predicting sprinting ability in elite handball players.     

Role of maturity timing in selection procedures and in the specialisation of playing positions in youth basketball

This study investigated the role of maturity timing in selection procedures and in the specialisation of playing positions in youth male basketball. Forty-three talented Dutch players (14.66 ± 1.09 years) participated in this study. Maturity timing (age at peak height velocity), anthropometric, physiological, and technical characteristics were measured. Maturity timing and height of the basketball players were compared with a matched Dutch population. One-sample t-tests showed that basketball players were taller and experienced their peak height velocity at an earlier age compared to their peers, which indicates the relation between maturity timing and selection procedures. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that guards experienced their peak height velocity at a later age compared to forwards and centres (P < .01). In addition, positional differences were found for height, sitting height, leg length, body mass, lean body mass, sprint, lower body explosive strength, and dribble (P < .05). Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) (age and age at peak height velocity as covariate) showed only a significant difference regarding the technical characteristic dribbling (P < .05). Coaches and trainers should be aware of the inter-individual differences between boys related to their maturity timing. Since technical characteristics appeared to be least influenced by maturity timing, it is recommended to focus more on technical characteristics rather than anthropometric and physiological characteristics.     

A longitudinal study of multidimensional performance characteristics related to physical capacities in youth handball

Abstract

Longitudinal research provides valuable information about change and progress towards elite performance. Unfortunately, there is a lack of longitudinal research in handball. In this study, 94 youth handball players (oldest group: n = 41; age 15–17 and youngest group: n = 53; age 13–15) were followed over a three-year period. Repeated Measures ANCOVA was conducted to reveal longitudinal changes in anthropometry and physical performance between elite and non-elite players, controlling for maturation. Maturation effects were found for anthropometry (P < 0.01) and some physical performance measures in strength and speed (P < 0.05). The lack of significant interaction effects revealed that during the three years of the study the elite players did not improve their physical performance more rapidly than the non-elites. Furthermore, they had a similar anthropometric profile to the non-elites. Elite players performed better on the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test (P < 0.01; on average 24.0 in the youngest group and 25.2% in the oldest group over the three years) and on the speed and coordination items (P < 0.05; shuttle run: 3.6 and 5.1%; cross hopping: 11.0 and 14.8%, handball-specific shuttle run: 7.6 and 7.7%; slalom dribble test: 10.7 and 8.9%; sprint 30 m: 4.9 and 3.9%). Additionally, Yo-Yo performance and coordination with and without a ball were the most discriminating factors between the playing levels. In conclusion, youth coaches and scouts within team handball should recognise the importance of good skills and an excellent endurance for talent identification purposes.     

Validity of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test in young soccer players

Abstract

The Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test is frequently used to assess aerobic endurance performance in young soccer players but only the logical validity of the test has been shown to date. The main ai m of this study was to assess the criterion (i.e. association with maximal aerobic capacity, [Vdot]O_2max) and construct validities of the test in young soccer players. A secondary aim was to examine possible shared variance of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test with other physical capacities. Sixty-two soccer players (age 13.7±0.5 years) from an Under-14 team participated. All players performed a battery of fitness tests to assess [Vdot]O_2max, aerobic endurance performance (Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test), soccer dribbling endurance performance (Hoff dribbling test), and power performance (maximal vertical jump, 30-m sprint with 10-m split time). Results showed that the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test was strongly correlated with [Vdot]O_2max (r=0.63, P<0.001), thereby showing the test's criterion validity. Players with the best performance on the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test had significantly higher [Vdot]O_2max (P<0.001, large effect), and significantly better soccer dribbling endurance (P<0.001, large effect) and 30-m sprint times (P<0.05, medium effect). Logistic regression (r=0.79, P=0.0001) showed that Hoff dribbling test performance (explained variance=50.4%), [Vdot]O_2max (explained variance=39.7%), and 30-m sprint time (explained variance=14.4%) were significant independent parameters contributing to performance on the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test. Therefore, the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test is a valid on-field aerobic endurance performance test for young soccer players, which can also be used to differentiate the maximal aerobic capacity, soccer dribbling endurance, and 30-m sprint performance of these players.     

Effect of a global alteration of running technique on kinematics and economy

In this study, we examined the consequences of a global alteration in running technique on running kinematics and running economy in triathletes. Sixteen sub-elite triathletes were pre and post tested for running economy and running kinematics at 215 and 250?m?·?min^?1. The members of the treatment group (n = 8) were exposed to 12 weeks of instruction in the “pose method” of running, while the members of the control group (n = 8) maintained their usual running technique. After the treatment period, the experimental group demonstrated a significant decrease in mean stride length (from 137.25?±?7.63?cm to 129.19?±?7.43?cm; P <?0.05), a post-treatment difference in vertical oscillation compared with the control group (6.92?±?1.00 vs. 8.44?±?1.00?cm; P <?0.05) and a mean increase in submaximal absolute oxygen cost (from 3.28?±?0.36?l?·?min^?1 to 3.53?±?0.43?l?·?min^?1; P <?0.01). The control group exhibited no significant changes in either running kinematics or oxygen cost. The global change in running mechanics associated with 12 weeks of instruction in the pose method resulted in a decrease in stride length, a reduced vertical oscillation in comparison with the control group and a decrease of running economy in triathletes.     

The impact of 100 hours of exercise and sleep deprivation on cognitive function and physical capacities

Abstract

In this study, we examined the effect of 96–125 h of competitive exercise on cognitive and physical performance. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Stroop test (n = 9) before, during, and after the 2003 Southern Traverse adventure race. Strength (MVC) and strength endurance (time to failure at 70% current MVC) of the knee extensor and elbow flexor muscles were assessed before and after racing. Changes in vertical jump (n = 24) and 30-s Wingate performance (n = 27) were assessed in a different group of athletes. Complex response times were affected by the race (16% slower), although not significantly so (P = 0.18), and were dependent on exercise intensity (less so at 50% peak power output after racing). Reduction of strength (P < 0.05) of the legs (17%) and arms (11%) was equivalent (P = 0.17). Reductions in strength endurance were inconsistent (legs 18%, P = 0.09; arms 13%, P = 0.40), but were equivalent between limbs (P = 0.80). Similar reductions were observed in jump height (?8 ± 9%, P < 0.01) and Wingate peak power (?7 ± 15%, P = 0.04), mean power (?7 ± 11%, P < 0.01), and end power (?10 ± 11%, P < 0.01). We concluded that: moderate-intensity exercise may help complex decision making during sustained stress; functional performance was modestly impacted, and the upper and lower limbs were affected similarly despite being used disproportionately.     

Somatotype and size of elite female basketball players

The aim of this study was to compare the somatotype and size of elite female basketball players in terms of playing position and team performance. Anthropometry and somatotype data were collected on 168 players from 14 countries before the Women's World Basketball Championship, Australia, 1994. There were 64 guards (mean?±?s: age 25.4?±?3.3 years, height 1.72?±?0.06?m, mass 66.1?±?6.2?kg, somatotype?=?2.9?–?3.9?–?2.6), 57 forwards (age 25.2?±?3.8 years, height 1.81?±?0.06?m, mass 73.3?±?5.9?kg, somatotype?=?2.8?–?3.5?–?3.2) and 47 centres (age 24.1?±?3.1 years, height 1.90?±?0.06?m, mass 82.6?±?8.2?kg, somatotype?=?3.2?–?3.1?–?3.4). Mean somatotypes by position were significantly different (F?=?7.73, P?<?0.01). Guards had greater mesomorphy than centres and less ectomorphy than forwards and centres. When discriminant function analysis was applied to endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy, age, height and mass, only height, mass and ectomorphy entered (Wilks' λ?=?0.351, F?=?31.40, P?<?0.000), 70% of the variance was accounted for, and 72% of players were correctly classified. In the four top versus four bottom teams, guards were taller and more ectomorphic, forwards were taller, with lower mesomorphy and higher ectomorphy, and centres did not differ. Thus there are some differences in somatotypes by position and team placing, but the combination of height, mass and ectomorphy provide the best differentiation by position.     

Neuromuscular,metabolic and hormonal profiles of young tennis players and untrained boys

This study compared the neuromuscular, metabolic and hormonal profiles of trained prepubescent tennis players and an untrained group. The boys in the experimental group (n = 9; mean age ± S.D. = 11.4 ± 0.5 years) had participated in tennis training for 2.3 ± 1.0 years and the boys in the control group (n = 9; mean age ± S.D. = 10.9 ± 0.4 years) were normal active volunteers. The tennis players were found to be physically more active than the controls when the comparison was made for either 1 year (4.9 ± 1.8 vs 2.6 ± 2.5 times per week; P<0.05) or for 1 week (3.4 + 1.2 vs 0.4 ± 0.5 times; P < 0.001) preceding the tests. Choice reaction time was significantly (P <0.01) shorter in the experimental group (258 ± 16 ms) than in the control group (344 + 81 ms). Dropping height in the best drop jump was significantly (P< 0.05) higher in the tennis players (0.46 + 0.19 m) than in the control boys (0.27 ± 0.10 m). The tennis players had significantly lower oxygen consumption at the ‘anaerobic threshold’ than the controls (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences between the groups in serum hormone levels. The small differences that existed may have been caused by actice participation in sport by the tennis players.     

Upper limb joint muscle/tendon injury and anthropometric adaptations in French competitive tennis players

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the upper limb anthropometric dimensions and a history of dominant upper limb injury in tennis players. Dominant and non-dominant wrist, forearm, elbow and arm circumferences, along with a history of dominant upper limb injuries, were assessed in 147 male and female players, assigned to four groups based on location of injury: wrist (n = 9), elbow (n = 25), shoulder (n = 14) and healthy players (n = 99). From anthropometric dimensions, bilateral differences in circumferences and in proportions were calculated. The wrist group presented a significant bilateral difference in arm circumference, and asymmetrical bilateral proportions between wrist and forearm, as well as between elbow and arm, compared to the healthy group (6.6 ± 3.1% vs. 4.9 ± 4.0%, P < 0.01; ?3.6 ± 3.0% vs. ?0.9 ± 2.9%, P < 0.05; and ?2.2 ± 2.2% vs. 0.1 ± 3.4%, P < 0.05, respectively). The elbow group displayed asymmetrical bilateral proportions between forearm and arm compared to the healthy group (?0.4 ± 4.3% vs. 1.5 ± 4.0%, P < 0.01). The shoulder group showed significant bilateral difference in elbow circumference, and asymmetrical bilateral proportions between forearm and elbow when compared to the healthy group (5.8 ± 4.7% vs. 3.1 ± 4.8%, P < 0.05 and ?1.7 ± 4.5% vs. 1.4 ± 4.3%, P < 0.01, respectively). These findings suggest that players with a history of injury at the upper limb joint present altered dominant upper limb proportions in comparison with the non-dominant side, and such asymmetrical proportions would appear to be specific to the location of injury. Further studies are needed to confirm the link between location of tennis injury and asymmetry in upper limb proportions using high-tech measurements in symptomatic tennis players.