‘Youth in a void’: sexuality,HIV/AIDS and communication in Kenyan public schools

The disappearance of traditional sex education during rites of passage in African societies has left many youth uncertain of where to look for information. Against this backcloth, the objectives of this study were to identify knowledge gaps amongst adolescents in Kenya regarding sexuality, HIV/AIDS and reproductive health. A thematic analysis was conducted of questions posed by 735 school youth aged 12–18 years from Meru and Kajiado Districts. Results show that many questions showed curiosity and anxiousness. Knowledge appeared to be fragmented and sometimes revealed misconceptions, which may put youth at risk. The raised themes differed by gender and age. Questions on saying no to sex, sexual violence and female circumcision were a great concern for girls. Boys were more concerned with managing boy–girl relationships, preventing STI/HIV infection, and condoms. Concern about transition to adulthood, sexuality, STI and HIV/AIDS, myths and misconceptions, and intergenerational communication cut across both genders. Older teens were more concerned with questions on boy–girl relationships, norms and values regarding sexuality, and STI. Younger teens ( < 15 years) wanted to know about reproduction, saying no to sex, HIV/AIDS, condoms, sexual violence and female circumcision. Compounding these challenges was the lack of intergenerational communication. The study identified important knowledge and communication gaps in sexual and reproductive health among in-school adolescents in Kenya. There is a need for sex education interventions for different age groups and genders. These interventions should work with parents, teachers and health professionals.     

852例男同性恋者艾滋病相关知识、高危行为与感染状况调查

目的：通过对广州市越秀区男同性恋人群艾滋病相关知识、高危行为及感染状况的调查,为针对该人群开展艾滋病预防工作提供参考.方法：与非政府组织（岭南伙伴健康支持中心）合作,在广州市越秀区动员征集852名男同性恋者进行调查.结果：852名调查对象中,53.9％为20～29岁的青壮年;96.6％知晓艾滋病两种以上传播途径;而近3个月发生同性性行为时每次安全套使用率为25.4％;出现过性病相关症状者为6.0％,其中仅56.9％的人到综合医院或性病门诊就诊;人免疫缺陷病毒（HIV）感染率为3.99％,梅毒感染率为3.05％.结论：广州市越秀区该人群HIV传播途径知晓率较高,但高危行为仍普遍存在,艾滋病性病感染率高.     

‘Can you get pregnant when u r in the pool?’: young people's information seeking from a sexual health text line

Young people have questions about sex and development but may have trouble getting answers to them. Text messaging services can serve as a resource. This study analysed 1351 text messages sent to a sexual health text message service designed for young people in North Carolina to determine the types of questions asked of a confidential, accurate source of information. The majority of texts sought information about sexual health topics (89%). A smaller proportion asked for advice (7%) or reassurance (4%) that the sender was developing normally. Questions mainly asked about sexual acts (33.9%), unplanned pregnancy (20.2%), contraception (13.7%), physical or sexual development (12.9%) and sexually transmitted diseases (10.8%). Findings suggest that a confidential and accurate sexual health text message service could be an important resource for young people, especially if they seek advice before engaging in risky sexual behaviour.     

Experiences of HIV/AIDS Counselors in Zimbabwe and Their Perceptions on the State of HIV/AIDS Counseling in Zimbabwe

This study investigated Zimbabwean counselors' experiences of providing HIV/AIDS counseling and their perceptions about the state of HIV/AIDS counseling in Zimbabwe. The participants were a diverse group of counselors, 30 through 59 years of age, who provided counseling services to HIV/AIDS clients. Participants thought HIV/AIDS counselors in Zimbabwe received minimal support and supervision and were undertrained. They identified that the first sessions with clients were the most difficult. They also found it problematic to work with couples who were serodiscordant (one partner who is HIV positive and the other HIV negative) and couples wanting children. The later stages of the counseling process were also found to be challenging. Though the participants acknowledged they had negative psychological experiences when counseling HIV/AIDS clients, they also expressed feelings of satisfaction and fulfillment in their work.     

Identifying a School Counseling Research Agenda: A Delphi Study

The authors conducted a Delphi study to identify important research questions regarding school counseling. During 3 consecutive rounds of e‐mail queries, an expert panel of 21 school counseling educators and practitioners were asked to identify the goals of school counseling research, develop specific research questions, and rate the importance of the questions. The highest rated research questions concerned school counseling interventions that have an impact on academic achievement and the effects of school counseling programs on student outcomes. The panel's final list of 42 research questions can help counselor educators, graduate students, and practitioners develop research projects that most effectively meet the needs of the field.     

Visualizing the politics of innocence in the age of AIDS

We are concerned with the ways in which social constructions of age can contribute to reducing or exacerbating the vulnerability of young people, and for this reason we refer to the issue as one of ‘the politics of innocence’. The focus of this paper is on gender, youth and HIV prevention/AIDS awareness in the context of South Africa and investigates the uses (and abuses) of images of ‘childhood’, ‘youth’ and ‘adolescence’ in the age of AIDS. Notwithstanding the particular case of South Africa where the incidence of new cases of HIV infection amongst young people is at crisis proportions, the impetus for our work on the visual representations of youth, gender and AIDS comes out of a recognition of the increasing risk of youth to sexually transmitted infections, HIV and AIDS, and within that the particular vulnerability, worldwide, of young women.     

Adolescent sexual risk behaviors and school‐based sexually transmitted infection/HIV prevention

Many adolescents are susceptible to negative outcomes associated with sexual behavior. This is particularly true for those who initiate sexual intercourse at an early age, have many sex partners, or engage in unprotected sex because these behaviors put one at risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV. This article reviews the various demographic, social‐contextual, and intrapersonal factors linked to sexual risk behaviors. Successful STI/HIV prevention programs must consider developmental and gender issues, as well as cultural norms and values, to effectively meet the prevention needs of all adolescents. We discuss the characteristics of effective intervention programs and provide the names and key features of empirically validated, school‐based STI/HIV prevention programs. In addition, we recommend specific roles for school psychologists in STI/HIV prevention efforts. Finally, other resources are provided to assist practitioners in their continuing review of STI/HIV prevention education. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Lessons learned from more than two decades of HIV/AIDS prevention efforts: implications for people who are deaf or hard of hearing

In contrast with the nearly 30 years of HIV/AIDS research with the hearing community, data on HIV infection among persons who are deaf and hard of hearing is primarily anecdotal. Although the few available estimates suggest that deaf and hard of hearing persons are disproportionately affected by HIV infection, no surveillance systems are in place to identify either frequency or mode of HIV infection within this population. Moreover, to date, all empirically validated HIV prevention interventions have relied on communication strategies developed for persons who hear. Therefore, understanding and developing effective prevention methods is crucial for persons who are deaf or hard of hearing. The authors explore (a) factors among this population that may contribute to HIV-related behaviors, (b) four key concepts consistently included in successful interventions, and (c) practical ways in which to use this information to tailor effective intervention strategies for this population.     

Moral Development,HIV/AIDS Knowledge,and Attitude toward HIV/AIDS among Counseling Students in the United States

People living with HIV/AIDS will likely require services from mental health professionals to address the complex psychosocial effects of the illness. In the United States, counseling students are not likely to be well prepared to serve clients affected by HIV/AIDS, and little is known about their HIV-related knowledge and attitudes. The present study assessed the moral development, HIV/AIDS knowledge, and attitudes toward HIV/AIDS among a national sample of counseling students in the United States. Results indicated that students held biases toward people living with HIV/AIDS and that their attitudes toward HIV/AIDS were inversely related to their level of moral development.     

The importance of levels of knowledge in developing a unified theory for HIV/AIDS counselling: A comparison of two culturally different samples

This paper qualitatively compares the responses concerning knowledge about HIV/AIDS prevention methods that were obtained from two cross-culturally different samples of students who were of a sexually active age. Canadian and Zimbabwean education students were sampled. The responses are presented and analyzed with the main purpose of placing the findings in the context of Balmer's (1991) proposal of a unified theory for HIV/AIDS counselling. The major focus of this paper is on HIV/AIDS infection prevention strategies. The differences in responses across the two groups sampled suggest that it would be important to begin individual and group-based prevention strategies with exploration of individual levels of knowledge. Finally, implications for research are discussed.     

回归分析方法预测某市HIV／AIDS流行趋势的应用研究

根据疾病预防控制中心提供的数据,应用回归分析的方法,建立了某市HIV／AIDS逐年新增人数预测模型和经性传播HIV／AIDS新增人数预测模型,并分析得出该市未来3年HIV／AIDS的发展趋势：HIV／AIDS新增人数逐年趋于平稳,但是仍有上升的迹象;经性传播HIV／AIDS新增人数比例逐年上升且速度较快,性传播HIV／AIDS已逐渐成为该市HIV／AIDS传播的主要途径。     

祥云县2004年至2011年HIV／AIDS流行特征分析

目的：掌握祥云县HIV／AIDS流行趋势,为制订防控措施提供依据。方法：利用描述流行病学方法分析祥云县2004年至2011年报告的祥云籍HIV／AIDS疫情资料。结果：2004年至2011年祥云县共报告祥云籍HIV／AIDS389例,年平均报告率10．6。1／10万,死亡58例;其发病率的分布特征为：2004年至2007年呈快速增长趋势,2008年至2010年趋于平缓;县城高于坝区,坝区高于山区;男性（14．62／10万,年均）大于女性（6．89／10万,年均）,两者差异有统计学意义（X％36．82,P〈0．05）,在男性和女性中的比例为2．27：1;以20~40~为主,占79．69％;以农民（293例）为主,占82-4％;以初中以下学历为主,占97．13％;以非婚性接触和静脉吸毒为主,分别占病例总数的45．76％、38．56％。结论：祥云县艾滋病疫情经过实施全球基金艾滋病控制项目后,疫情已得到初步遏制。由于HIV／AIDS疫情的复杂性,感染途径的多样性,必须加强对艾滋病防治知识宣传,提高全民预防艾滋病的意识;重点应对农民、待业青年开展宣传和教育,加强对流动人口的管理;进一步完善咨询检测网络,提高艾滋病的发现,以有效控制艾滋病的蔓延。     

Automated Evaluation of AIDS Messages with High‐Risk,Low‐Literacy Audiences

A series of televised public service announcements (PSAs) about acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was evaluated with 100 black participants attending a Sexually Transmitted Diseases Clinic in Atlanta, Georgia. Since the literacy level of the participants was suspected to be low, questions were administered orally and an electronic data collection technique was used which permitted the participants to push buttons, as opposed to speaking or writing responses. In this way, data were collected regarding: (i) the participants’ demographics; (ii) their self‐perceived AIDS knowledge and awareness; and (iii) their second‐by‐second continuous responses to the video presentation. Participants who perceived themselves to be at high risk of contracting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection gave more positive continuous responses to the PSA sequence than did self‐perceived low‐risk participants. Men gave more approving responses than women. The results were considered in relation to previous findings concerning the interacting effects of PSA design and perceived risk. Debriefing sessions indicated that the automated approach to data collection is particularly useful informative evaluation studies requiring rapid data collection from audiences drawn from diverse educational backgrounds.     

Using growth curves to determine the timing of booster sessions

Booster sessions are often recommended to reestablish or reinforce the cognitive messages or behavior changes due to therapeutic and behavioral interventions. To plan intervention‐relevant booster sessions, researchers need to know the pattern(s) of individual change over time in outcome variables and for experimental groups. Growth curve analysis of repeated measures can estimate these patterns for different categories of intervention participants. This article demonstrates an application of this method using data from a recently completed multisite randomized experiment that compared 3 different counseling and testing methods for prevention of HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases, Project RESPECT. Reported self‐efficacy for condom use with the main sexual partner is used as an illustrative example. For most experimental groups, self‐efficacy for condom use declined for both female and male respondents soon after the intervention and booster sessions should have been instituted within 3 months after the intervention. The article closes with some recommendations for both prospective and retrospective use of growth curves to rationally plan the timing of booster sessions and to evaluate their effectiveness in preventing relapse.     

Challenges in Meeting HIV/AIDS Counselling Needs in Nigeria

The HIV/AIDS pandemic is recognized globally as the greatest health challenge of the present generation. It is widely acknowledged to be the foremost killer disease in Africa. Since the first Aids case was publicly announced in 1986, the astronomical increase in victims has been a matter of concern. The rates of HIV/AIDS infection indicate that Nigeria currently has the third largest rate of HIV/AIDS patients. The UNAIDS (2008) reported that as at 2007, the population of children and adults with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria was 2.6 million. Due to the fact that there is no cure for the virus, HIV/AIDS, counselling is an important aspect of its management. Counsellors in Nigeria have provided pre- and post-test counselling, preventive education seminars, and referrals to other health professionals. However, counsellors’ efforts have only yielded limited success because of a number of major challenges. This paper examines some of the challenges involved in meeting the HIV/AIDS counselling needs of Nigerians. Specifically, it addresses challenges faced by government, potential clients, and the Counselling Association of Nigeria, as well as challenges associated with existing cultural practices (indigenous counselling practices). It concludes with specific recommendations for various stakeholders.     

Sexuality Information Needs of Latino and African American Ninth Graders: A Content Analysis of Anonymous Questions

This study used qualitative content analysis to examine anonymous questions about sex and sexuality submitted by Latino and African American adolescents in Los Angeles, California, classrooms. The majority of questions asked about sexuality and sexual behavior, or anatomy and physiology, with fewer questions about pregnancy and pregnancy prevention, sexually transmitted infections, and condoms. Overall, a notable mix was found of questions implying exposure to or awareness of a wide range of sexual activities, together with questions demonstrating fundamental misunderstandings or confusion about some of the most basic aspects of sex and sexuality. Gender differences emerged across topics, subtopics, and question types. The results of this study suggest that differences exist between what Latino and African-American teens yearn to know about sex and sexuality, and what information they are getting on these topics from other sources. This reinforces the importance of considering the concerns and needs of the intended audience in designing and evaluating health education programs.     

Using adult education principles for HIV/AIDS awareness intervention strategies in Botswana

This paper reports on a mainly qualitative study into company strategies for HIV/AIDS information, education and communication (IEC) strategies in the Botswana workplace. The authors argue that HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention strategies in Botswana need a new approach. The research proposal hypothesized that IEC strategies need to take account of adult education theory that promotes the active involvement of learners in developing their own curriculum. It also proposed that an Africa‐centric gender perspective should be incorporated into future IEC materials. That is, the particular cultural position of women and their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS infection in Botswana needs to be theorized as an issue of power. Integrated with this issue is the argument that it is not always appropriate to try to persuade women to take the initiative in preventing infection when culturally they have no power to do so. The paper therefore critiques some of the adult education and feminist arguments for empowerment that do not take account of existing male power positions within the Botswana social framework. Using new educational material that derived from the research findings the authors argue for a dual strategy towards behavioural change; one that takes account of the current health crisis, but also one which uses a radical pedagogical approach that engages with ‘where people are at’.     

Research priority setting for integrated early child development and violence prevention (ECD+) in low and middle income countries: An expert opinion exercise

Child development in low and middle income countries (LMIC) is compromised by multiple risk factors. Reducing children’s exposure to harmful events is essential for early childhood development (ECD). In particular, preventing violence against children – a highly prevalent risk factor that negatively affects optimal child development – should be an intervention priority. We used the Child Health and Nutrition Initiative (CHNRI) method for the setting of research priorities in integrated Early Childhood Development and violence prevention programs (ECD+). An expert group was identified and invited to systematically list and score research questions. A total of 186 stakeholders were asked to contribute five research questions each, and contributions were received from 81 respondents. These were subsequently evaluated using a set of five criteria: answerability; effectiveness; feasibility and/or affordability; applicability and impact; and equity. Of the 400 questions generated, a composite group of 50 were scored by 55 respondents. The highest scoring research questions related to the training of Community Health Workers (CHW’s) to deliver ECD+ interventions effectively and whether ECD+ interventions could be integrated within existing delivery platforms such as HIV, nutrition or mental health platforms. The priority research questions can direct new research initiatives, mainly in focusing on the effectiveness of an ECD+ approach, as well as on service delivery questions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic exercise of its kind in the field of ECD+. The findings from this research priority setting exercise can help guide donors and other development actors towards funding priorities for important future research related to ECD and violence prevention.     

Educational research within postcolonial Africa: a critique of HIV/AIDS research in Botswana

This paper uses the postcolonial lens to highlight that mainstream research in postcolonial societies still ignores, marginalizes and suppresses other knowledge systems and ways of knowing. The marginalization of local knowledge systems, it is argued, was established in the colonial times that relegated all things indigenous or from the colonized communities as unworthy, uncivilized, barbaric and superstitious. Systematic efforts to inscribe Western ways of cultural, economic, political and social systems were applied during the colonial times and maintained in the post‐independence era. The educational system did not escape the colonial construction of the colonized subjects and their relegation to otherness. Years after the struggle for independence the content of what is taught, methods of teaching and research remain Western in non‐Western contexts. This does not only alienate the ‘othered’ from their own knowledge systems, it can be a matter of life and death as demonstrated by the HIV/AIDS information and education campaign. Using excerpts from studies on HIV/AIDS, the paper highlights that interventions to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, legitimized by conventional/Western research knowledge and frameworks, have alienated the people from the struggle to prevent the spread of the virus. Findings from a number of research studies on HIV/AIDS in Botswana are analyzed within the framework of current prevention strategies, more specifically posters and cartoons used in the campaign against HIV/AIDS, to illustrate the marginalization of other knowledge systems and the intersection of the ‘otherness’ ideology with mainstream First World research methodologies.