Credentials Versus Performance: Review of the Teacher Performance Pay Research

In this article we examine the economic case for merit or performance-based pay for K–12 teachers. We review several areas of germane research. The direct evaluation literature on these incentive plans is slender; highly diverse in terms of methodology, targeted populations, and programs evaluated; and primarily focused on short-run motivational effects. It is nonetheless fairly consistent in finding positive program effects. The general personnel literature highlights potentially significant selection effects of employee compensation systems. This is particularly relevant for teaching, because a growing body of production function research points to large, persistent, but idiosyncratic differences in teacher productivity. Thus, along with motivation effects, there is potential for substantial positive long run selection effects from teacher performance pay systems. The evaluation literature is not sufficiently robust to prescribe how systems should be designed (e.g., optimal size of bonuses, mix of individual vs. group incentives). However, it is sufficiently positive to support much more extensive field trials, pilot programs, and policy experiments, combined with careful follow-up evaluation.     

Median Growth Percentiles (MGPs): Assessment of Intertemporal Stability and Correlations with Observational Scores

While states are no longer required to set up teacher evaluation systems based in significant part on student test scores, quite a few continue to use value-added (VAMs) or student growth percentile (SGP) models for that purpose. In this study, we analyzed three years of teacher data to illustrate the performance of teachers’ median growth percentiles (MGPs)). We found MGP’s consistency over time to be comparable with the existing estimates from the value-added models (VAMs). Additionally, we found that MGPs do not substantively agree with another measure of teacher quality – teachers’ observational scores. These findings suggest that caution should be exercised when teacher’s MGPs, as well as VAMs, are used in teacher evaluation system to make high-stakes decisions such as merit pay, tenure, or teacher contract termination. Our findings about the correlation of MGPs with observational scores support the idea of the multidimensional nature of teacher effectiveness construct.     

Mapping the social side of pre-service teachers: connecting closeness,trust, and efficacy with performance

This exploratory study foregrounds the important, but often understudied social side of pre-service teacher development and its relation to teaching performance in one university-based teacher preparation program in the US. We examine the extent to which pre-service elementary teachers’ social relationships and perceptions of peer trust and efficacy are associated with performance on a high stakes mathematics teaching assessment. Findings suggest that social and emotional support through close social ties, peer trust, and self-efficacy are significantly and positively associated with pre-service teachers’ teaching performance. Our work further contributes to the development and discourse about teacher education in university-based teacher preparation programs.     

Teachers’ Ability to Identify Children at Early Risk for Reading Difficulties in Grade 1

The aim of the study was to investigate what kinds of assessment practices classroom teachers and special educational needs (SEN) teachers use in assessing first grade students' pre-reading skills (letter knowledge and phonological skills). Further, we investigated to what extent teachers were able to identify difficulties in pre-reading skills of the children with the lowest achievement scores. The accuracy of teacher ratings of students' pre-reading skills was studied by comparing teacher ratings to actual test scores. The data from two Finnish longitudinal studies were used: JLD sample (class teachers, n = 91; SEN teachers, n = 51; 200 students) and First Steps sample (class teachers, n = 136; SEN teachers, n = 34; 598 students). Results showed first, that most classroom teachers used qualitative assessment and SEN teachers also relied on tests. Secondly, although teacher ratings correlated with the test scores, closer investigation of sensitivity and specificity of the teacher ratings revealed that a number of children in need of extra support for their early reading development according to test scores remained unidentified. Moreover, there were some students identified by the teacher to have difficulties despite test scores not confirming that. The findings underline the importance for developing more specific and reliable assessment tools for teachers to use for pedagogical purposes, and respectively, the need to pay more attention to early identification of reading difficulties in teacher training program curricula.     

表现性评价在美国教师资格认定实践中的应用及其启示

自20世纪80年代起,美国佛罗里达州、乔治亚州、得克萨斯州等开始在专业教师资格认定中使用表现性评价。目前,少数州又将表现性评价应用于初级教师资格认定。表现性评价的应用增进了教师资格认定的真实性和预测效度。我国可以尝试在教师资格认定实践中应用表现性评价,也可以将表现性评价拓展应用到师范生教育实习以及在职教师专业发展领域,但同时要充分预见并积极应对可能面临的挑战。     

Teacher reactions to the performance-based bonus program: how the expectancy theory works in the South Korean school culture

This study was conducted in order to examine how and to what extent the implementation of the performance-based bonus program in South Korean schools has motivated teachers to improve their behavior, as well as to identify any other positive or negative effects of the program. Interviews with teachers indicated that a large percentage of teachers did not have a clear understanding of the evaluation system and did not feel that the evaluation standards were indicative of good teaching practice or that the evaluators were sufficiently experienced to conduct the evaluations. As a result, teachers generally had negative opinions regarding the program and did not support its continuation. Aligned with the expectancy theory, it was found that the Korean teachers’ expectancy probabilities were low, instrumentality was low, most did not value a bonus, and they perceived other negative outcomes from the program. Therefore, most teachers stated that the program was not motivating them to improve their instructional performance. Further, schools’ cultural factors such as seniority, the traditional concept of Sesheng, and mistrust of job security turn out to not facilitate the original intention of the policy.     

“Spanish as a foreign language” teachers’ profiles: inclusive beliefs, teachers’ perceptions of student outcomes in the TCLA program, burnout, and experience

The present study focuses on the Temporary Classroom of Linguistic Adaptation program (TCLA program) in which specialist teachers (Spanish as a foreign language teachers—SFL teachers) teach Spanish to immigrants who are not proficient in the language. We suggest that support for immigrant students in Spanish schools should adopt a new inclusive educational approach. The present investigation is a preliminary attempt at characterizing the profiles of SFL teachers by assessing, simultaneously, five relevant variables (through cluster analysis): inclusive beliefs, teachers’ perceptions of student outcomes in TCLA program, general burnout, diversity-related teacher burnout, and years of teaching experience. Eighty-one SFL teachers from 132 schools in Spain (EU) were asked to complete a self-report questionnaire. Cluster analysis found two clearly differentiated groups: the larger one, Innovative SFL Teachers and the smaller, Traditional SFL Teachers. The Traditional SFL Teachers are characterized by more years of experience, lower inclusive beliefs scores, lower teachers’ perception of student outcomes in the TCLA program scores, and higher burnout scores as compared with the Innovative SFL Teachers. Moreover, Traditional SFL Teachers conceptualize their teaching role as a "teacher of Spanish" whereas Innovative SFL Teachers see themselves much more as playing a supportive role.     

Student teachers' growth toward independence: An analysis of their changing concerns

A year-long study was conducted to address questions concerning student teachers' concerns and the development of those concerns over time. Journals kept by 19 elementary student teachers during their 1-year education program showed that these students: (a) evidenced a broad range of concerns, (b) developed toward independence from student to teacher as they progressed through their education program, and (c) reflected over educational aims and practices when given opportunities and support to do so. This study suggests that teacher educators may enhance student teachers' learning and professional development by encouraging their inquiry and reflection.     

Scaffolded support systems: examining a multi‐tiered support plan protocol for struggling teacher candidates

Teacher candidates train in an educational world that has changed dramatically. The tensions and challenges that preservice teachers experience are a reality for teacher education programs and must be planned for. The authors from a teacher preparation program describe the steps they have taken to support more authentic and integrated work with teacher candidates who struggle in their performance during their licensure program. After implementing a program‐wide support plan protocol and professional action plan tool, we examined the issues that signaled the need for intervention, the types of supports provided, and the resulting program decision. We captured staff perspectives regarding the effectiveness of the support plan protocol and conclude with recommendations to support teacher candidates in acquiring the conceptual and technical knowledge, skills, and disposition needed to teach in today’s classrooms.     

Mathematics teaching efficacy and developmental trajectories: A mixed-methods investigation of novice K-5 teachers

The current mixed-methods study investigated the development of mathematics efficacy trajectories for novice teachers over the course of their teacher preparation and into their first two years of teaching. Participants (N = 245) were graduates of an elementary STEM-focused program from a major university in the United States. Overall, quantitative results showed that participants’ efficacy trajectory increased during their teacher preparation program and decreased during their first years of teaching. Additionally, efficacy trajectories were identified for particular groups that displayed patterns of either increased or decreased efficacy over time. Qualitative data helped explain when and why changes in teaching efficacy take place.     

The durability of professional and sociomathematical norms intentionally fostered in an early pedagogy course

This study investigated the extent to which three sociomathematical and four professional norms intentionally fostered in an early mathematics pedagogy course through the use of a video-case curriculum re-emerged in a similar context with two groups: (1) teacher candidates in the final mathematics pedagogy course of the same teacher education program and (2) program graduates in their beginning years of teaching. All seven norms were found to be durable over time, with the sociomathematical norm of providing a mathematical argument being the most widely and consistently exhibited among the participants. Comparisons of the behaviors exhibited by the two groups revealed that five of the norms were consistently durable over time with both groups and suggested that participants’ engagement with two of the norms was positively affected by additional classroom experience. Details of differences among the groups and ways in which the norms appeared to support continued teacher learning are examined. The results point to the long-term benefits of developing productive norms early in a teacher education program.     

Does burnout begin with student-teaching? Analyzing efficacy,burnout, and support during the student-teaching semester

The burnout process may begin as early as the student-teaching experience [Gold, Y., 1985. Does teacher burnout begin with student teaching? Education, 105, 254–257]. Data from 49 student–teachers in the southwest United States were gathered twice during their student-teaching practicum. Data assessing teacher efficacy, teacher burnout, learning climate, and cooperating teacher support (guidance or imitation) were analyzed using correlational analyses, repeated measures MANOVA, a 2×2 repeated measures MANOVA, and stepwise regression. Results indicated significant increases in efficacy and decreases in burnout symptoms over time. We found significant interactions in the three factors of burnout by guidance group, such that student–teachers experiencing high guidance demonstrated lower levels of burnout at the end of their practicum.     

Teacher behavior under performance pay incentives

Over the last decade many districts implemented performance pay incentives to reward teachers for improving student achievement. Economic theory suggests that these programs could alter teacher work effort, cooperation, and retention. Because teachers can choose to work in a performance pay district that has characteristics correlated with teacher behavior, I use the distance between a teacher's undergraduate institution and the nearest performance pay district as an instrumental variable. Using data from the 2003 and 2007 waves of the Schools and Staffing Survey, I find that teachers respond to performance pay incentives by working fewer hours per week. Performance pay also decreases participation in unpaid cooperative school activities, while there is suggestive evidence that teacher turnover decreases. The treatment effects are heterogeneous; male teachers respond more positively than female teachers. In Florida, which restricts state performance pay funding to individual teachers, I find that work effort and teacher turnover increase.     

Revealing Student Teachers’ Thinking through Dilemma Analysis

We explore the potential of dilemma analysis as an assessment tool to reveal student teachers’ thinking and concerns about their practice. For this purpose we analyze the dilemma analyses completed by 22 student teachers enrolled in our science teacher preparation program over a period of four semesters. Student teachers’ dilemmas fall into two main groups: dilemmas about student performance and dilemmas associated with instructional decisions. These dilemmas reveal a variety of concerns that student teachers have about their work. In particular, concerns about lack of student motivation and its consequences on performance and instruction play a central role in student teachers’ thinking. The recognition of common patterns of thought in our student teacher thinking has made us reflect on and re-evaluate important components of the curriculum in our science teacher preparation program.     

Effects of coaching on teacher use of sociocultural instructional practices

This study evaluates a performance-based instructional coaching model intended to improve teacher pedagogy and classroom organization for educating diverse student populations. Elementary teachers (N = 21) participated in a 30-h workshop and seven individual coaching sessions across an academic year. The coaching model promoted use of the Standards for Effective Pedagogy, five research-based practices known to increase student achievement. Findings demonstrate performance-based instructional coaching led to statistically significant (a) improvements in teacher pedagogy, (b) patterns of teacher growth, and (c) changes in classroom organization. Implications for improving teachers’ ultimate achievement, the coaching protocol, and research are addressed.     

Pivotal teaching moments in technology-intensive secondary geometry classrooms

This study investigates three teachers’ uses of a dynamic geometry program (The Geometer’s Sketchpad) in their high school geometry classes over a 2-year period. The researchers examine teachers’ actions and questions during pivotal teaching moments to characterize mathematics instruction that utilizes technology. Findings support an association between teacher–tool relationships, predominant teacher actions, and questioning.     

Professional development of teachers in the implementation of a strategy-focused writing intervention program for elementary students

In this study we examined the effectiveness of Tekster [Texter], a comprehensive program for writing for the upper elementary grades, combining strategy instruction, text structure instruction, and the teaching of self-regulation skills with observational learning, explicit instruction, and (guided) practice to address both the focus of instruction (what is taught) and the mode of instruction (how it is taught). Further, we investigated the added value of a professional development program for teachers on the effectiveness and implementation of the intervention in the classroom, by adopting a teachers-training-teachers approach. One group of teachers (N = 31) was trained by experts, and subsequently trained their colleagues (N = 37). Quasi-experimental results showed that students’ writing performance improved after the intervention (ES = 0.55), while generalizing over tasks, students, and teachers. Further, teachers became more positive and felt more efficacious about teaching writing after the intervention. There were no differences between trainers and trainees, which provides evidence for the spillover effect of professional development. To get more insight in how teachers implemented the intervention in their classroom and in the social validity of the intervention and the teachers-training-teachers approach, we triangulated post-intervention questionnaires with classroom observations and interviews. This mixed methods approach revealed that both trainers and trainees were highly satisfied with the program and easily adapted their focus of instruction. However, for adjusting the mode of instruction more teacher support seems to be needed.     

Vaughn Elementary's Innovative Teacher Evaluation System: Are Teacher Evaluation Scores Related to Growth in Student Achievement?

In this study, I examined the validity of a performance-based, subject-specific teacher evaluation system by analyzing the relationship between teacher evaluation scores and student achievement. From a policy perspective, establishing validity was important because it is embedded in a knowledge-and skills-based pay system, which attached high stakes to evaluation scores. In the first stage of the study, I used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to estimate value-added teacher effects, which were then correlated with teacher evaluation scores in literacy, mathematics, language arts, and a composite measure of student achievement. Additionally, teacher evaluation scores were inserted into the HLM models as subject-specific predictors of student achievement. Results indicate a strong, positive, and statistically significant relationship between teacher evaluation scores and student achievement in reading and a composite measure of teacher and student performance and a positive, although not statistically significant, relationship in mathematics. In the second stage of the study, I used document analyses and interviews with teachers to explore factors affecting the relationship between teacher evaluation scores and student achievement across subjects. Findings suggest that the relationship is stronger in reading than mathematics because both teachers and evaluators have more pedagogical knowledge and better alignment to standards and assessments in reading than in math.