‘What can I do to help?’: Postsecondary students with learning disabilities' perceptions of instructors' classroom accommodations

This qualitative research report adopts a critical pedagogy perspective to examine the provision of classroom accommodations for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Although instructors in the United States are bound to abide by disability rights laws, we also believe instructors can act in ways that allow students to feel comfortable in disclosing their disabilities and in requesting and accessing accommodations for these disabilities. We engaged the voices of 10 university students living with learning disabilities through a series of semi‐structured interviews. These students offered a variety of statements on the ways that their disabilities were accommodated or not by their instructors. We classified these perceptions into three kinds of accommodation perceived by university students with learning disabilities: non‐accommodation, formal accommodation and accommodation for all students. We discuss the implications that these types of accommodations have for pedagogy and offer recommendations for effective techniques for accommodating for all. We hope the voices of these students will serve to enhance communication between students with learning disabilities and their professors.     

The Effects of Read‐Aloud Accommodations for Students With and Without Disabilities: A Meta‐Analysis

Read‐aloud accommodations have been proposed as a way to help remove barriers faced by students with disabilities in reading comprehension. Many empirical studies have examined the effects of read‐aloud accommodations; however, the results are mixed. With a variance‐known hierarchical linear modeling approach, based on 114 effect sizes from 23 studies, a meta‐analysis was conducted to examine the effects of read‐aloud accommodations for students with and without disabilities. In general, both students with disabilities and students without disabilities benefited from the read‐aloud accommodations, and the accommodation effect size for students with disabilities was significantly larger than the effect size for students without disabilities. Further, this meta‐analysis reveals important factors that influence the effects of read‐aloud accommodations. For instance, the accommodation effect was significantly stronger when the subject area was reading than when the subject area was math. The effect of read‐aloud accommodations was also significantly stronger when the test was read by human proctors than when it was read by video/audio players or computers. Finally, the implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Do Proper Accommodation Assignments Make a Difference? Examining the Impact of Improved Decision Making on Scores for English Language Learners

Does it matter if students are appropriately assigned to test accommodations? Using a randomized method, this study found that individual students assigned accommodations keyed to their particular needs were significantly more efficacious for English language learners (ELLs) and that little difference was reported between students receiving incomplete or not recommended accommodations and no accommodations whatsoever. A sample of third and fourth grade ELLs in South Carolina (N = 272) were randomly assigned to various types of test accommodations on a mathematics assessment. Results indicated that those students who received the appropriate test accommodations, as recommended by a version of a computerized accommodation taxonomy for ELLs (the selection taxonomy for English language learners accommodations; STELLA), had significantly higher test scores than ELLs who received no accommodations or those who received incomplete or not recommended accommodation packages. Additionally, students who were given no test accommodations scored no differently than those students that received accommodation packages that were incomplete or not recommended, given the students' particular needs and challenges. These findings are important in light of research and anecdotal reports that suggest a general lack of systematicity in the current system of assigning accommodations and a tendency to give all available accommodations regardless of individual child characteristics. The results also have important implications for how future accommodation research should be structured to determine the benefits of particular accommodations and accommodation packages. This study would suggest that control and treatment groups should be assembled based on specific student needs in order for direct comparisons to be made.     

Are separate room test accommodations effective for college students with disabilities?

Abstract

College students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or learning disabilities are frequently allowed to complete examinations in a separate, distraction-reduced setting. Although separate room test accommodations are believed to provide students with equal access to testing and thereby improve performance, little experimental research has examined their effects on actual test scores. We randomly assigned college students to complete a high-stakes Spanish language placement examination in either a group or separate room setting. Then, we categorized students based on their (1) disability status, (2) history of test accommodations, and (3) self-reported history of test anxiety. Results showed a significant setting x disability status interaction. Contrary to expectations, all students performed equally well in the group setting, but students with disabilities earned significantly lower scores than their classmates without disabilities when tested in a separate room. Similar results were found when we restricted our analyses to students with a history of test accommodations. Separate room testing had no effect on the scores of students with test anxiety. Altogether, our findings suggest that separate room testing does not mitigate the effects of ADHD, learning disabilities, and/or test anxiety on performance and, in some cases, may actually lower test scores.     

Instructors’ willingness to provide instructional accommodations for students with disabilities in selected universities of Ethiopia

The purpose of this study was to examine instructors’ willingness to provide instructional accommodations for students with disabilities in universities. Questionnaire was distributed to a total of 252 instructors from four universities and quantitative data were generated. Then appropriate quantitative methods of data analysis were employed. The results indicated that the majority of instructors participated in this study found to have positive willingness to provide instructional accommodations. Concerning the relationship between instructors’ willingness and background variables, the result revealed that, a statistically significant mean score difference existed between groups of background variables like location of university, age, Special Needs Education course, teaching methodology training, awareness raising training on Inclusive Education and experience in teaching students with disabilities. Finally, using exploratory factor analysis, this study showed that there were four components or factors that represent the underlying constructs of willingness to provide instructional accommodations items.     

The validity and comparability of entrance examination scores after accommodations are made for students with LD

Every year, thousands of college and university applicants with learning disabilities (LD) present scores from standardized examinations as part of the admissions process for postsecondary education. Many of these scores are from tests administered with nonstandard procedures due to the examinees' learning disabilities. Using a sample of college students with LD and a control sample, this study investigated the criterion validity and comparability of scores on the Miller Analogies Test when accommodations for the examinees with LD were in place. Scores for examinees with LD from test administrations with accommodations were similar to those of examinees without LD on standard administrations, but less well associated with grade point averages. The results of this study provide evidence that although scores for examinees with LD from nonstandard test administrations are comparable to scores for examinees without LD, they have less criterion validity and are less meaningful for their intended purpose.     

Constructing a Computerized Adaptive Test for University Applicants With Disabilities

In recent years, there has been a large increase in the number of university applicants requesting special accommodations for university entrance exams. The Israeli National Institute for Testing and Evaluation (NITE) administers a Psychometric Entrance Test (comparable to the Scholastic Assessment Test in the United States) to assist universities in Israel in selecting undergraduates. Because universities in Israel do not permit flagging of candidates receiving special testing accommodations, such scores are treated as identical to scores attained under regular testing conditions. The increase in the number of students receiving testing accommodations and the prohibition of flagging have brought into focus certain psychometric issues pertaining to the fairness of testing students with disabilities and the comparability of special and standard testing conditions. To address these issues, NITE has developed a computerized adaptive psychometric test for administration to examinees with disabilities. This article discusses the process of developing the computerized test and ensuring its comparability to the paper-and-pencil test. This article also presents data on the operational computerized test.     

A Meta‐Analysis of Research on the Read Aloud Accommodation

Read aloud is a testing accommodation that has been studied by many researchers, and its use on K‐12 assessments continues to be debated because of its potential to change the measured construct or unfairly increase test scores. This study is a summary of quantitative research on the read aloud accommodation. Previous studies contributed information to compute average effect sizes for students with disabilities, students without disabilities, and the difference between groups for reading and mathematics using a random effects meta‐analytic approach. Results suggest that (1) effect sizes are larger for reading than for math for both student groups, (2) the read aloud accommodation increases reading test scores for both groups, but more so for students with disabilities, and (3) mathematics scores gains due to the read aloud accommodation are small for both students with and without disabilities, on average. There was some evidence to suggest larger effects in elementary school relative to middle and high school and possible mode effects, but more studies are needed within levels of the moderator variables to conduct statistical tests.     

Entrance test accommodations,admission and enrollment of students with learning disabilities in teacher training colleges in Israel

The ‘Saf’ (threshold) exam is the entry exam taken by approximately 40% of the students enrolled in teacher training colleges in Israel. Students with learning disabilities may apply and be granted testing accommodations on this exam. This study examines the percentage of students with testing accommodations among the testees and those who began their studies in 2003. Their test and subtest scores were compared to those of students without accommodations as were grades on high school matriculation exams. Characteristics such as gender, age, difficulties as reported in assessments and assessment history were examined. Enrollment patterns in the various colleges departments were noted. Satisfaction with the testing accommodations process was looked at as well. Ramifications and recommendations are discussed vis a vis future research needed and policies regarding the admission of students with learning disabilities to institutions of higher learning.     

Are Accommodations for English Learners on State Accountability Assessments Evidence-Based? A Multistudy Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The objectives of this two-part study were to: (a) investigate English learner (EL) accommodation practices on state accountability assessments of reading/English language arts and mathematics in grades 3–8, and (b) conduct a meta-analysis of EL accommodation effectiveness on improving test performance. Across all distinct testing programs, we found that at least one EL test accommodation was provided for both test content areas. The most popular accommodations provided were supplying students with word-to-word dual language dictionaries, reading aloud test directions and items in English, and allowing flexible time/scheduling. However, we found minimal evidence that testing programs provide practitioners with recommendations on how to assign relevant accommodations to EL test takers’ English proficiency level. To evaluate whether accommodations used in practice are supported with evidence of their effectiveness, a meta-analysis was conducted. On average, across 26 studies and 95 effect sizes (N = 11,069), accommodations improved test performance by .16 standard deviations. Both test content and sampling design were found to moderate accommodation effectiveness; however, none of the accommodations investigated were found to have intervention effects that were statistically different from zero. Overall, these results suggest that currently employed EL test accommodations lack evidence of their effectiveness.     

High-Stakes Testing Accommodations: Validity Versus Disabled Rights

Traditionally, measurement specialists have provided testing accommodations for examinees with physical disabilities such as blindness or impaired mobility. Following passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, advocates for the disabled have argued that federal law also requires testing accommodations for mental disabilities such as dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Such requested accommodations have included readers, calculators, word processors, and additional time. But these accommodations may affect test validity, requiring measurement specialists to balance the social goal of integrating the disabled against the measurement goal of accurate test score interpretation. Although the courts have provided some guidance regarding testing accommodation requirements for the disabled, they have not yet addressed the issue of where to draw the line on accommodations for mental disabilities. This article explores the measurement problems associated with granting accommodations for mental disabilities, uses existing case law to construct a legal framework for considering such accommodations, arid discusses the advantages and-disadvantages of alternative strategies for handling testing accommodation requests.     

Students with Disabilities and eLearning in Australia: Experiences of Accessibility and Disclosure at Curtin University

This article reports on a study into students with disabilities and their experiences of eLearning at Curtin University in Australia. The results are compared to an earlier study of students at Open Universities Australia (OUA) (Kent 2016). The results confirm the earlier study’s findings that these students are drawn to eLearning. The prevalence of mental illness and medical disabilities as the two most frequent impairment types amongst students with disabilities in Australia was confirmed, along with a need to rethink universal design for eLearning to better accommodate these students. It also finds that the students had difficulty accessing online platforms and notably those provided directly by the university. This survey confirmed that students at Curtin University were more aware than their OUA counterparts of accommodations that could be made to help with their studies. It also showed that, when used, those accommodations were more successful. However, the study also reported that Curtin University students were more likely to not disclose their disability as part of their studies.     

Examining Effectiveness and Validity of Accommodations for English Language Learners in Mathematics: An Evidence-Based Computer Accommodation Decision System

Research indicates that the performance-gap between English Language Learners (ELLs) and their non-ELL peers is partly due to ELLs' difficulty in understanding assessment language. Accommodations have been shown to narrow this performance-gap, but many accommodations studies have not used a randomized design and are based on relatively small sample sizes. Addressing such issues, we administered a standard-based mathematics assessment to approximately 3,000 Grade 9 ELL and non-ELL students under five different language-based accommodations. Results indicate that many of these accommodations did not produce significant gains for the recipients. Some even had a negative impact. We believe several factors may explain these findings. First, newer assessments, including those developed for this study, may have been linguistically modified to the point that further modification has only a limited effect. Second, the language of instruction may have not adequately prepared students for the assessment. If the language of instruction (textbook, etc.) contains unnecessary linguistic complexity, then students may not have had the opportunity to learn the assessed content. A third factor is students’ unfamiliarity with these accommodations because they are seldom used in classroom instruction and teacher assessments. We discuss our findings and implications for policymakers, assessment developers, practitioners, and researchers.     

Accommodations and flags: Admissions testing and the Rights of Individuals With Disabilities

As the number of students with disabilities applying for admission and enrolling in educational institutions continues to increase, educators and measurement experts face the challenge of determining whether and how to offer accommodations in admissions tests and how to report and utilize the results of modified tests. This article discusses the provision of accommodations in admissions testing and in educational programs, the test score flagging practices that impact admissions testing, validity concerns, and issues surrounding fairness and compliance with the federal disability laws for such practices. It offers some conclusions about the legality of the use of flagged test scores, as well as a call for further research concerning testing and evaluating students with disabilities.     

Helping Teachers Formulate Sound Test Accommodation Decisions for Students with Learning Disabilities

This paper introduces a data-based approach as an alternative way to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for students with LD. Three rationales for the approach are provided: (a) an inadequate research base to guide decision-making; (b) the heterogeneity of the LD population; and (c) problems with teachers' use of subjective judgment. Well-controlled studies on test accommodations are too scarce to draw firm conclusions about effects for the group of students labeled learning disabled (LD). Moreover, in light of the heterogeneity of learning disabilities, the individual, rather than the LD label, may be the more appropriate unit for deciding which test accommodations preserve the validity of test scores for students with LD. In this paper, we provide a rationale for a data-based approach to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for individual students with LD. Then we describe an objective assessment process teachers may use in determining valid test accommodations. We conclude with recommendations for practitioners.     

Testing Students with Special Needs: A Model for Understanding the Interaction Between Assessment and Student Characteristics in a Universally Designed Environment

This article presents a model of assessment development integrating student characteristics with the conceptualization, design, and implementation of standardized achievement tests. The model extends the assessment triangle proposed by the National Research Council ( Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001 ) to consider the needs of students with disabilities and English learners on two dimensions: cognitive interaction and observation interaction. Specific steps in the test development cycle for including students with special needs are proposed following the guidelines provided by Downing (2006) . Because this model of test development considers the range of student needs before test development commences, student characteristics are supported by applying the principles of universal design and appropriately aligning accommodations to address student needs. Specific guidelines for test development are presented.     

ENHANCING FACULTY AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

An increasing number of students with disabilities are enrolling in postsecond‐ary institutions. To better serve these students, faculty, administrators and counselors must develop an understanding of the needs of students with disabilities and how to make accommodations for their success. An inservice program that targeted skills in enhancing awareness of student needs, meeting legal mandates for accommodations, and developing a team approach to serving students is presented. As a result of participation in the inservice program, all community colleges in the Commonwealth have instituted an advisory council that addresses the academic environment and needed support services for students with disabilities.     

The influence of a response format test accommodation for college students with and without disabilities

Standardised and other multiple-choice examinations often require the use of an answer sheet with fill-in bubbles (i.e. ‘bubble’ or Scantron sheet). Students with disabilities causing impairments in attention, learning and/or visual-motor skill may have difficulties with multiple-choice examinations that employ such a response style. Such students may request and receive testing accommodations that intend to mitigate these impairments, such as circling responses in a test booklet, which contains both the questions and corresponding multiple-choice answers. The current study evaluated this test accommodation as compared to using a bubble sheet or Scantron on a multiple-choice vocabulary test. College students with (n = 25) and without (n = 76) disabilities completed a vocabulary test under both booklet (accommodated) and bubble sheet (standard) conditions. Results demonstrated that answering in a test booklet, a much preferred response mode, allowed students to attempt significantly more items than using a bubble sheet, improving their overall test scores. Booklet responding tends to improve overall performance, even for students without disabilities, calling into question the specificity and validity of this accommodation.     

Student Perspectives on Academic Accommodations

The active involvement of secondary school students with high-incidence disabilities (HI) in instructional accommodations is essential to both enacting the accommodations and to the accommodations effectiveness. Very little is known about students with HI’s knowledge about instructional accommodations, experiences with them, or opinions on effective practices. A focus group study was conducted with 10 high school students with HI. A content analysis (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009) revealed they are unaware of how their accommodations are identified, and that they typically are not directly taught to use them. The students explained how accommodations are usually provided in the classroom, including the ways they signal need, and offered their suggestions for more effective practices, which included responding to fairness and potential embarrassment. Their comments also revealed their beliefs and practices for self-advocating for accommodations.     

Using a Self‐Advocacy Intervention on African American College Students’ Ability to Request Academic Accommodations

Due to an increase in enrollment of African American students with disabilities in postsecondary education, there is a need to identify strategies that may lead to improved transition and self‐advocacy skills for these students. These strategies include teaching students to request academic accommodations and to have an understanding of how their disability affects their academic learning. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide an in‐depth explanation of a self‐advocacy strategy that was used to teach three African American male college students how to request their academic accommodations. Results indicated this strategy may be a promising intervention for African American college students with disabilities.