Birth order and sex of sibling as determinants of mother-infant interaction.

Mother-infant interaction was assessed on 32 first- and second-born siblings when each was 3 months old. Data were colleted during 2 6-hour naturalistic home observations using a modified time-sampling technique. The sample consisted of 4 equal-size subgroups of same and opposite sex sibling pairs. Results suggested that interaction between a mother and her infant varied depending on the birth order and gender of the infant. Mothers spent significantly less time in social, affectionate, and caretaking interaction (except for feeding activities) with their second borns than they had with their firstborns; this difference was greater if the second born was female. Certain patterns of maternal behaviors appeared to be stable from one sibling to the other. Different types of interaction between the mothers and their younger infants were related to attention-seeking behavior in the firstborn male and female siblings.     

Effects of maternal interference on the attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds

Effects of maternal interference on social behavior toward mother and exploratory play were examined in a laboratory experimental paradigm. Subjects were 40 1-year-olds and their mothers. Mothers of the 20 interference-group infants were instructed periodically to physically interfere with their child's independent object play during the first half of the observation session. A postinterference free-play period immediately followed. The 20 control-group infants were permitted by mother to play freely throughout the session. Groups were matched for exposure to play materials. Despite its aversiveness, interference had no subsequent effect on infant social initiatives to mother, responsiveness to mother's social bids, or exploratory play.     

Mothers' Perspectives of the Peer-Related Social Development of Young Children with Developmental Delays and Communication Disorders

Mothers' perspectives of children's peer-related social development were obtained from matched groups of young children with developmental delays, communicative disorders, and typically developing children. Structured interviews elicited information on numerous issues including mothers' views of the importance of children's social skills development, rationales with respect to why children succeed or had difficulties on specific social tasks, and the socialization strategies mothers employ to promote children's peer-related social development. Mothers also reported on their efforts to arrange play with peers for their child and the degree to which they monitored that play. Results indicated that mothers rated children's social development as highly important, offered primarily internal rationales (e.g., traits, dispositions) for success or difficulties in achieving social tasks, and endorsed moderate and low power socialization strategies. Differences across the three groups were minimal. Mothers arranged play with peers least often for children with developmental delays and communication disorders, but monitored play more extensively for children with delays. These finding were discussed in terms of mothers adopting a developmental orientation to understand children's social development and their implications for maternal participation in peer competence intervention programs.     

The social ecology and early parenting of Caucasian adolescent mothers

Social characteristics, maternal behaviors, and the home environments of Caucasian adolescent and nonadolescent mothers were investigated in a sample of 50 primiparous low- and middle-class women and their 4-month-old infants. The mothers were interviewed about their child-care network and about stressful life events that may have occurred since the infant's birth. The HOME inventory was completed and videotapes of 2 hours of home observations were coded to assess maternal proximity, verbalizations, activity, and physical contact with the infant. Interview data indicated that adolescent mothers relied more frequently on other teenagers and other network members for help in child care than nonadolescent mothers. In addition, they also received more frequent support from their mothers and less frequent help from their partner's and partner's mother and siblings than nonadolescent mothers. During the home visit, they were less verbal with their infants and scored significantly lower on the Responsiveness and Maternal Involvement subscales as well as on the total HOME inventory; these results were replicated on subgroups matched for socioeconomic status, emphasizing the unique social context and parenting practices of teenage mothers.     

Maternal social networks and mother-infant interactions in full-term and very low birthweight, preterm infants

The relation between maternal social networks and mother-infant interactions at 6 months of age was examined in 34 mother-preterm and 20 mother-full-term dyads. All preterm infants were of very low birthweight and experienced medical complications. Mothers were interviewed regarding their social networks; ratings of maternal behaviors were derived from videotaped mother-infant interactions. There were few between-group differences in mean levels of network variables; however, the association between network structure and maternal sensitivity differed in the 2 groups. A larger number of ties between the mother's family of origin and the mother's friends related to higher maternal sensitivity in full-terms but to lower maternal sensitivity in preterms. The birth of a full-term infant is typically a positive event around which a tightly knit network can coalesce to support the mother. It is less clear that the birth of a preterm infant is a positive event, leaving network members unsure of their roles and how to respond. Under the latter circumstances, fewer ties among network members may decrease the likelihood of ambiguous or stressful communications.     

Maternal stress in nonverbal learning disorder: a comparison with reading disorder

Maternal stress was assessed in mothers of children ages 8 to 11 years with learning disorders (LD). Age-, gender-, and IQ-matched children with reading disorders (RD; n = 31), children with nonverbal learning disorders (NVLD; n = 21), and typically developing control participants (n = 23) participated. Mothers of children with LD reported higher levels of stress, although the specific nature of the stress appeared to vary by disorder subtype: Mothers of children with RD reported higher levels of general distress, whereas mothers of children with NVLD reported higher levels of dysfunctional interactions with their child. The severity of the LD was strongly associated with maternal stress in the sample of children with NVLD but not in the sample of children with RD. In the sample of children with NVLD, the best predictors of maternal stress were 2 variables associated with the child: The lower the child's Performance IQ, the higher the level of maternal stress. Furthermore, the level of the child's internalizing symptoms was also a strong predictor of maternal stress in the sample of children with NVLD. In our sample of children with RD, the 3 best predictors were all variables associated with the mother, including her age, her level of reported psychiatric symptoms, and her overall level of social support.     

Playful Relationships: A Contextual Analysis of Mother-Toddler Interaction and Symbolic Play

The relation between social interaction and complexity of toddler's symbolic play was investigated. 57 toddlers between 15 and 24 months of age were observed under 4 conditions: (1) child play alone, (2) child play with mother, (3) child modeling mother, and (4) child play with mother following the modeling condition. Each subject was rated on complexity of play, maternal attention directing, reciprocity, and maternal intrusiveness. Significant condition effects were found in which more complex forms of play were observed when the children were playing with their mothers than when playing by themselves. Maternal intrusions and questioning were negatively related to symbolic play. Turn-taking was negatively related to simple exploratory play. Results of a sequential analysis demonstrated that turn-taking was more likely to precede symbolic play, and maternal intrusiveness was more likely to precede simple exploratory play. The role of active partnership in symbolic play development is discussed.     

Indonesian Children's Play with Their Mothers and Older Siblings

30 Indonesian children were observed and videotaped on 2 separate occasions while playing with toys to promote imaginative play with their mothers and older siblings. Play episodes were examined for level of play with objects, mutual involvement in social and cooperative social pretend play, maternal and sibling play behaviors, and thematic content. Mothers were interviewed about children's play. Results showed that level of object play and mutual involvement in cooperative social pretend play increased with age. Pretend play with objects and cooperative social pretend play were more frequent with older siblings than with mothers. Older siblings were more actively involved in play activities than were mothers. Siblings joined their younger partners' play activities and made comments and suggestions for pretend play. The findings suggest that older siblings can be effective facilitators of pretend play with young children. The results also show how the sociocultural context shapes children's early play behavior with different partners.     

Social Interactions in the Home and the Development of Young Children's Conceptions of the Personal

Observations and interviews of 20 middle-class 3- and 4-year-olds and their mothers were conducted to examine the emergence of the personal domain. Interviews with children showed that 3- and 4-year-olds make a conceptual distinction between personal, and moral or conventional issues. Interviews with mothers indicated that they viewed it as important for young children to have freedom of choice over personal issues to develop a sense of autonomy and individuality. Observations in the home revealed that mothers tended to give direct social messages to children about moral, conventional, and prudential events, and were more likely to give indirect social messages in the form of offered choices to children in response to personal issues. Mothers were more likely to negotiate with children over personal than other social events. These data revealed a pattern of social interactions concordant with event domain, which included a reciprocal system along the border between the personal and the conventional.     

Maternal Sensitivity and the Security of Infant-Mother Attachment: A Q-Sort Study

40 mothers and their 12-month-old infants were observed twice at home by 2 observers for 2 hours. After the second visit, the observers described the infant using the Waters Attachment Behavior Q-sort and the mother's interactive behavior with the Maternal Behavior Q-sort developed by the present authors and Ainsworth's rating scales. Maternal sensitivity was unrelated to maternal age, income, or SES, but correlated positively with maternal education. Mothers of more difficult children were less sensitive. A strong relation was found between infant attachment and maternal sensitivity as measured by the Maternal Behavior Q-sort and by the Ainsworth scales. Using the Q-sort procedure, mothers of more secure infants were more frequently characterized as noticing their babies' signals and using these signals to guide their behavior; they also were more knowledgeable about their infant and appeared to enjoy them more than mothers of less secure infants.     

Lenghth of Maternity Leave and Quality of Mother-Infant Interactions

The aim of this study was to assess the association between the length of maternity leave and the quality of mother-infant interactions; 198 employed mothers of 4-month-old infants were interviewed and videotaped in their homes during a feeding time. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated a direct association between shorter length of leave and more negative affect and behavior in maternal interactions with their infants. Infant and mother stressor/protective variables added significantly in predicting the quality of the mother-infant relationship. There were also significant interaction effects between the length of leave and these variables. Mothers who either reported more depressive symptoms or who perceived their infant as having a more difficult temperament and who had shorter leaves, compared with mothers who had longer leaves, were observed to express less positive affect, sensitivity, and responsiveness in interactions with their infants. The public policy implications of the relation between length of maternity leave, maternal and infant individual differences, and the quality of mother-infant interactions are discussed.     

Parenting behaviours among low‐income mothers of preschool age children in the USA: implications for parenting programmes

This study examines the overall quality of parenting behaviours among low‐income mothers in the USA and the extent to which they are influenced by risk factors within the family environment, maternal well‐being and maternal risk characteristics associated with socio‐economic status. Participants consisted of 1070 low‐income mothers of three‐year‐old children who were enrolled in the Early Head Start (EHS) Research and Evaluation Project. Data were collected using structured interviews with the mothers and from videotaped mother–child interactions during play activities when children were age three. Findings indicated that less‐positive parenting behaviours and fewer supports for language and learning were predicted by higher family conflict, higher parental distress and maternal social risk factors including younger age, less education and a history of public assistance. Fewer household resources also predicted fewer supports for language and learning, but not positive parenting. Negative parenting behaviours were not predicted by maternal well‐being, although higher family conflict and maternal demographic risk factors (younger age, history of public assistance, not being married or living with partner) were statistically significant predictors. Findings from this study suggest that programmes to address the parenting abilities of low‐income mothers are warranted, and that national programmes geared at helping mothers should be augmented by efforts to decrease the degree of stress they experience in their parenting role, as well as by effective strategies to increase available household resources and reduce family conflict. They also indicate that particular attention should be paid to enhance the parenting abilities of mothers who are younger, have lower levels of education, have a history of receiving public assistance and those who are not married or living with their partner.     

Effects of Maternal Employment on Maternal and Two-Year-Old Child Behavior

94 mothers with 2-year-old children were interviewd about their employment, role satisfaction, and social support and were observed in their homes at dinnertime and in a laboratory compliance task. Hierarchical multiple regressions were used to test main effects of employment, hours employed, and their interactions. Maternal employment adversely affected maternal behavior when satisfaction with social support or with the work role was low, but only in the laboratory. Positive main effects of employment on maternal behavior were observed in the home: employed mothers used less power assertion with their children. Mothers who worked longer hours used more guidance and were more responsive to their children in both settings. In both settings, the effect of poor-quality care on child behavior was greater when mothers were employed, and, in the laboratory, boys of employed mothers were more defiant than boys of nonemployed mothers and girls of employed mothers. Boys with more than one current arrangement were more likely than similarly situated girls to be defiant in the laboratory, but they were also less likely than girls to be cared for by fathers.     

Work–family relations among mothers of children with learning disorders

The study examined conflict and facilitation in work–family relations among working mothers of children with learning disorders (LD) or with typical development. The study also focused on three maternal personal resources (maternal anxious/avoidant attachment security, affect and sense of coherence) as antecedents of these work–family relations, and examined outcomes of such conflict and facilitation between the two life domains, as they affected patterns of close relationships within the family (child attachment and family cohesion). The sample included 96 mother–child dyads: 48 mothers and their children with LD; and 48 mothers and their typically developing children. Children’s ages were 8–12 years. All attended public elementary schools in urban areas of central Israel. Significant group differences emerged on mothers’ family to work conflict and on mothers’ work to family facilitation. Findings indicated that several maternal personal resources were antecedents of these relations and also contributed to differences in mother–child attachment relationships and family cohesion. Discussion focused on understanding work–family relations among these mothers of children with LD, as well as the influence of maternal personal resources on patterns of close relationships (i.e., child attachment, family cohesion).     

The interactions of normal and hyperactive children with their mothers in free play and structured tasks.

Groups of 20 normal and 20 hyperactive boys ranging in age from 6 to 12 years were observed interacting with their mothers in 15-min free-play and 15-min structured-task situations. Using a 15-sec interval coding procedure, 1 observer recorded the mother's response to specific antecedent behaviors of the child while a second observer recorded the child's response to specific behaviors of the mother. Hyperactive boys proved more active, less compliant, and less likely to remain on task than nonhyperactive peers. Mothers of hyperactive boys were less likely to respond positively to the child's social interactions, solitary play activities, or compliant on-task behavior. In addition, mothers of hyperactive boys imposed more structure and control on the child's play, social interactions, and task-oriented activities. It is suggested that the controlling intrusive style observed among the mothers of hyperactive boys, while initially a response to the child's overactive, impulsive, inattentive style, may further contribute to the child's behavioral difficulties.     

Maternal Emotions During Mother-Toddler Interaction: Parenting in Affective Context

Objective. This study explored the emotional experiences of mothers in interacting with their 2-year-old children and examined interrelations among maternal emotion, family distress, and observations of parenting sensitivity. Design. Sixty mothers and their 2-year-old children were observed interacting during both enjoyable (free play) and challenging (waiting) interaction tasks, and mothers provided self-report information about their emotional experiences during each task. Mothers also completed self-report measures to assess family distress. Results. Mothers experienced and expressed a range of positive and negative emotions during interactions with their toddlers, however, mothers' expressed (observed) and experienced (self-reported) emotions were generally uncorrelated. Mothers reported experiencing more positive emotion during interactions characterized by less child negativity and less negative emotion during interactions characterized by child expressions of positive emotion. Mothers' self-reported emotional experiences during interactions with their children moderated the associations between family distress (as reported by mothers) and sensitive parenting behaviors (as observed during parent-child interaction). Conclusions. Findings support a conceptualization of parenting as multiply determined by child, parent, and family contextual factors, with emotion serving an integral role. Results are also discussed with regard to parenting emotion as a potential target for intervention in distressed families.     

Mother- and father-preterm infant relationship in the hospital preterm nursery

The relationships of Israeli mothers and fathers with their 38 preterm infants during hospitalization were traced in a short-term longitudinal study. Parent-infant interactions were observed and self-reports of parental feelings and perceptions were assessed twice: at the beginning and end of the nursery period. Mothers engaged in more caregiving, talking, and holding during initial contacts, but the disparity in maternal and paternal interactions decreased with time. Except for caregiving, in which mothers still surpassed fathers, fathers equaled mothers in all other activities at the time of the infants' discharge from the hospital. Fathers consistently surpassed mothers in playing and stimulating. Mothers perceived their infants to be more difficult than did fathers but reported enjoying them more. With time, parents were less disappointed and concerned over the infants' well-being but perceived them as more difficult. The data also demonstrated an association between infant behavioral states, parental feelings and perceptions, and parental behavior.     

The Influence of Early Patterns of Positive Parenting on Children's Preschool Outcomes

This study examined for patterns of maternal warm responsiveness and restrictiveness across 6, 12, and 24 months of age to determine if there were subgroups of mothers who varied in the way they adapted to children's changing developmental needs. The study included 136 healthy full-term children and 228 preterm children of high (n = 90) and low (n = 138) medical risk. We identified four distinct clusters of mothers; one of which appeared the most optimal in terms of adapting. This maternal cluster showed high levels of warm responsiveness across ages and only slight increases in restrictiveness. Two less optimal clusters showed low levels of warm responsiveness and dramatic increases in restrictiveness with increasing age. A final cluster of mothers also displayed dramatic increases in restrictiveness and withdrew warm responsiveness as the infant approached the toddler period. Mothers who displayed the most optimal pattern were older, of higher socioeconomic status, held less restrictive and more child-centered childrearing attitudes, and had higher social support. These mothers also had children with more optimal social and cognitive outcomes at 40 months of age. These analyses provide support for targeting in intervention programs mothers' attitudes regarding childrearing and their needs for positive social support.     

Maternal Interactions and Self-Reports Related to Attachment Classifications at 4.5 Years

Building on attachment theory and infancy research, this study examines relations between maternal style and attachment patterns in early childhood. Mothers of children classified as Secure at 4.5 years were rated higher than mothers of Insecure children on positive mood, meshing, enjoyment of child, and providing a relaxed home atmosphere. In a laboratory joint task, they had a higher frequency of monitoring, planning, and affirming and also received higher ratings for providing a sensitive framework. Compared with all other mothers, mothers of Avoidant children monitored less and planned less but reported themselves in a better light on 3 temperament scales as well as a depression scale. Mothers of Ambivalent children rated themselves as the most depressed and anxious and the least satisfied with their marriages. Their interactions at home were characterized by friction. Mothers of Controlling children rated themselves as least irritable and anxious, but in the laboratory they affirmed less, enjoyed the task less, and provided a less sensitive framework than all other mothers.