Taking the Guesswork out of Locating Evidence‐Based Mathematics Practices for Diverse Learners

Legislations mandates that educators use evidence‐based practices (EBPs) that are supported by scientifically based research. EBPs have demonstrated a likelihood to work for students with disabilities. EBPs should match targeted needs of the student receiving the instruction, which sometimes requires educators to search for the best intervention to meet specific student needs. This article discusses the impetus for practices supported by evidence, where to find interventions and strategies, and what to do when targeted interventions do not exist. Additionally, this article emphasizes the need to evaluate effectiveness of intervention at the student level.     

THE SECRET AGENT SOCIETY SOCIAL SKILLS PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN WITH HIGH‐FUNCTIONING AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS: A COMPARISON OF TWO SCHOOL VARIANTS

School is often considered an ideal setting for child social skills training due to the opportunities it provides for skills teaching, modeling, and practice. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of two variants of the Secret Agent Society social skills program for children with high‐functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) in a mainstream school context. Sixty‐nine students aged 7–12 took part in one of two different 10‐week versions of the program (structured versus unstructured) to determine their relative effectiveness. Results suggested that both program variants led to improvements in emotion regulation abilities, social skills, and behavior at school and home, maintained at 6‐week follow‐up. However, the structured intervention generally led to superior treatment outcomes. These results suggest that improvements in social–emotional functioning can be achieved for students with HFASD through time‐limited school‐based interventions. Limitations of this study and directions for future research are discussed.     

Statistical reform: Evidence‐based practice,meta‐analyses,and single subject designs

Evidence‐based practice approaches to interventions has come of age and promises to provide a new standard of excellence for school psychologists. This article describes several definitions of evidence‐based practice and the problems associated with traditional statistical analyses that rely on rejection of the null hypothesis for the establishment of invention effectiveness. Meta‐analysis as an approach to ascertain EBPs is reviewed along with the inherent difficulties associated with single subject design research such as autocorrelations. Four meta‐analytic approaches are reviewed which include Percentage of Nonoverlapping Data points (PND), the Busk and Serlin: Assumption models, ITSACORR, and Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM). HLM is offered as the most promising approach for the analysis for single subject designs. Monte Carlo simulations are modeled with varying degrees of autocorrelations, differing numbers of data points, and simulated effects sizes to show that HLM is an acceptable approach for controlling the risk of Type I errors. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 44: 483–493, 2007.     

Community‐based early intervention for children with behavioural,emotional and social problems: evaluation of the Scallywags Scheme

Scallywags is a community‐based, early intervention programme for young children (aged 3–7) with behavioural, emotional and social problems, which integrates work in the home and school with a parenting curriculum and direct work with children. A pre‐post intervention study across multi‐sites of 340 participants is reported. Using standardised measures, the study found statistically significant reductions in problems at home and school experienced by children who completed the programme, and in parental stress levels. Participation was found to be high and the project acceptable to parents, many of whom would be described as hard to reach. The rigorous evaluation of this real‐life service and its positive outcomes highlight the potential of such programmes to tackle the needs of these children and families, and help prevent longer‐term problems associated with early onset behavioural problems, including social exclusion, antisocial behaviour and educational failure.     

Enhancing executive function skills in preschoolers through a mindfulness‐based intervention: A randomized,controlled pilot study

Executive functions (EFs) develop rapidly in preschoolers and lay an important foundation for school readiness. One potential method of supporting EF development is through mindfulness‐based interventions (MBIs). Whereas studies with older children and adults have supported this approach, research with young children has been more limited. In the current study, we evaluated the effectiveness, acceptability, and feasibility of Mini‐Mind, a 12‐session MBI created specifically for preschoolers. We used a randomized controlled design in a sample of 27 (intervention n = 12) preschoolers (3–5 years old). The evaluation included indirect measures of EF skills completed by teachers who were blinded to the experimental condition of the students. Additionally, parents, teachers, children, and facilitators provided feedback about the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention. Findings revealed mostly nonsignificant, small‐to‐medium effects in favor of the intervention group on indirect measures of EF skills. Furthermore, Mini‐Mind was rated as highly feasible and acceptable by children and stakeholders. Overall, the findings support the implementation and continued evaluation of Mini‐Mind in more diverse settings.     

Elementary school teachers’ preferences for school‐based interventions for students with emotional and behavioral problems

Teachers’ adoption and implementation of evidence‐based programs is often limited. Program characteristics may be important facilitators or barriers of use, yet little is known about which attributes influence teacher decisions. Using a discrete choice experiment with a sample of general education elementary teachers (N = 230), we examined (a) preference for attributes of school‐based interventions, (b) relative preference for three intervention packages with experimentally manipulated characteristics, and (c) teacher characteristics related to the above preference profiles. Intervention outcomes were the most important characteristics in teachers’ intervention decisions. Most teachers’ responses suggested preference for a social and emotional learning program (57.9%) or school‐based consultation for behavioral interventions (35.8%); a small group of teachers preferred a general support intervention (5.8%). Teachers preferring the general support intervention reported greater mental health symptoms, lower mental health literacy and lower confidence in program effectiveness than peers preferring other interventions. Implications for intervention development and future directions are discussed.     

Problem‐Solving Model for Decision Making with High‐Incidence Disabilities: The Minneapolis Experience

The problem‐solving model (PSM) is used in the Minneapolis Public Schools to guide decisions regarding: (1) interventions in general education, (2) referral to special education, and (3) evaluation for special education eligibility for high‐incidence disability areas. District implementation was driven by four themes: the appropriateness of intelligence tests and the IQ‐achievement discrepancy for determination of eligibility, bias in assessment, allocation of school psychologist time, and linking assessment to instruction through curriculum‐based measurement. This article describes how the PSM was designed as a three‐stage process to measure response to intervention and used in the special education eligibility process. Program evaluation data collected since initial implementation in 1994 is reported in the areas of child count, achievement, referral, eligibility, and disproportion. The authors discuss the limitations of conducting PSM research in school settings, barriers to implementation of PSM, and make suggestions for enhancing treatment integrity.     

Responsiveness‐to‐Intervention: Definitions,Evidence, and Implications for the Learning Disabilities Construct

Longstanding concern about how learning disabilities (LD) are defined and identified, coupled with recent efforts in Washington, DC to eliminate IQ‐achievement discrepancy as an LD marker, have led to serious public discussion about alternative identification methods. The most popular of the alternatives is responsiveness‐to‐intervention (RTI), of which there are two basic versions: the “problem‐solving” model and the “standard‐protocol” approach. The authors describe both types, review empirical evidence bearing on their effectiveness and feasibility, and conclude that more needs to be understood before RTI may be viewed as a valid means of identifying students with LD.     

“How Come Nobody Told Me?” Fostering Self‐Realization Through a High School English Curriculum

Through collaboratively designed qualitative inquiry, we investigated the responses of high school students with learning disabilities to a teacher’s intervention intended to promote self‐realization, a fundamental component of self‐determination. Activities were embedded within the general English curriculum and delivered in a special education classroom over the course of an academic year. Several themes emerged from analysis of student interviews, student responses to writing prompts and surveys, a teacher journal, and student portfolio pieces. Silence and misconceptions were prevalent in student experiences. However, through the intervention students acquired information that helped them make sense of their school experiences, redefine themselves in positive ways, and take small steps toward greater self‐advocacy within their current school setting. The mediating influence of positive adult voices and concerns about social stigma were evident in students’ responses, which prompted us to question teachers’ and families’ responsibilities for engaging young people in dialogue about special education and disability.     

A cross‐national review of evidence‐based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders in the United Kingdom,Ireland, and United States

The most thoroughly researched topic in relation to autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) is the evaluation of interventions. Educational psychology in the United Kingdom and Ireland is the most closely allied profession to school psychology in the United States. In considering what is published by and for the profession, it is important to include all of those journals that are directly relevant to the profession including educational psychology journals. This review reports on the type, focus, and quality of school‐based ASD intervention research reported in school and educational psychology journals between 2005 and 2015. Twelve evaluation studies are reported, which evaluated 10 discrete interventions and two commercial packages. These interventions targeted academic, social, communication, and behavioral outcomes. Implications for the practice of school psychologists are discussed including the application of research to the idiographic nature of the work of school psychologists.     

Developing cognitive‐social‐emotional competencies to enhance academic learning

This preliminary study examined intervention effects of a universal prevention program offered by classroom teachers to public elementary school students. The Unique Minds School Program (M.B. Stern, 1999) is a teacher‐led program designed to promote cognitive‐social‐emotional (CSE) skills, including student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competence, and a positive classroom climate, with the dual goal of preventing youth behavioral problems and promoting academic learning. During 2 consecutive school years, 119 students and their teachers were assessed in the fall and spring of Grade 4 and again in the spring of Grade 5. As compared to students in the comparison school, students in the intervention showed gains in student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competencies, and math grades. Incremental gains within CSE domains were found after 1 and 2 years of intervention. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 405–417, 2005.     

Examining developmental differences in the social‐emotional problems among frequent bullies,victims, and bully/victims

Bullying poses a threat to children's social‐emotional functioning and their perceptions of school climate, yet few studies have examined different types of social‐emotional and behavior problems presented by children involved in bullying, as a bully, victim, or bully/victim across multiple school levels. The current study used data from 24,345 elementary‐, middle‐, and high‐school students to examine the association between frequent involvement in bullying and aggressive impulsivity, attitudes toward aggressive retaliation, internalizing symptoms, peer relations, and perceptions of school climate. Logistic regression analyses indicated that bully/victims were most likely to display internalizing symptoms, problems in peer relationships, and have poorer perceptions of the school environment. Both frequent bullies and bully/victims displayed aggressive‐impulsive behavior and endorsed retaliatory attitudes. High‐school students frequently involved in bullying tended to display the greatest risk for internalizing problems, but less risk for aggressive impulsivity. Developmental trends and implications for prevention and early intervention are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Considerations in the identification,assessment, and intervention process for deaf and hard of hearing students with reading difficulties

Problematic assessment and intervention issues present substantial challenges when making educational decisions for deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) students who are experiencing reading difficulties. These students present a diverse set of language acquisition skills, hearing ability, and orientation to early school learning activities that are different from the hearing student population. Given the importance of selecting assessment approaches that lead to effective interventions for D/HH students, three assessment procedures for identification of at‐risk children and learning disabilities within the D/HH population are examined. Assessments reviewed are teacher referral, norm‐referenced testing, and student response to intervention. Challenges to each process and the need for additional assessment and empirically validated treatment options are discussed. Finally, a case example is presented to illustrate a framework that may help school psychologists promote early identification of learning problems and outline interventions that meets a D/HH child's unique needs by focusing on reading outcomes in the curriculum. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effectiveness of school‐based psychotherapy: A meta‐analysis of dissertation research

A meta‐analysis was conducted with 65 school‐based psychotherapy and counseling dissertations over the last 10 years (1998–2008) to assess if a file‐drawer problem (i.e., studies conducted but not published that, as a whole, have different results than studies in the same area published) exists in the school‐based outcome literature. An overall mean effect size of 0.44 was found for 73 treatment interventions. This effect size is comparable to Prout and DeMartino's 1986 meta‐analysis conducted with published school‐based studies and approximately half a standard deviation smaller than Prout and Prout's 1998 meta‐analysis of school‐based intervention studies. A bias does appear to exist but seems to be smaller than the bias found in the general child and adolescent psychotherapy outcome literature. Most of the dissertation studies evaluated group interventions and used a cognitive–behavioral or skills training intervention. Skills training and interventions with elementary‐school students yielded the largest effect sizes. Comparisons of the current study with previous school‐based intervention meta‐analyses are discussed as are suggestions for future research. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

SUPERVISION IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: THE DEVELOPMENTAL/ECOLOGICAL/PROBLEM‐SOLVING MODEL

Effective supervision models guide the supervisory relationship and supervisory tasks leading to reflective and purposeful practice. The Developmental/Ecological/Problem‐Solving (DEP) Model provides a contemporary framework for supervision specific to school psychology. Designed for the school psychology internship, the DEP Model is also applicable to all pre‐service and advanced field‐based training, as well as career‐long continuing professional development. The Developmental domain initiates training at the functioning skill level of the supervisee and progresses toward independent competency. The Ecological domain addresses the multiple systemic contexts that influence school psychology practice and prepares the intern to intervene within both individual and systemic contexts. The Problem‐Solving domain focuses on the application of data‐based decision making and evidence‐based interventions to the full range of school psychology activities. It provides a systematic schema to address student, family, and school needs.     

Supporting the Inclusion of a Student with Asperger Syndrome: A Case Study using Conjoint Behavioural Consultation and Self‐management

Conjoint behavioural consultation (CBC) is an indirect form of service delivery that combines the resources of home and school to meet the academic, social and behavioural needs of children. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the utility of CBC as a service delivery model for supporting the inclusion of a student with Asperger syndrome in a mainstream setting. A case study methodology was employed to assess the effectiveness of an evidence‐based intervention (self‐management) delivered in the context of the CBC model. Results indicated a significant increase in teacher ratings of behavioural control (on‐task and compliant behaviour) from baseline to treatment. Clinically meaningful changes in parent and teacher perceptions of challenging behaviour were evident. Measures of treatment acceptability and effectiveness, treatment integrity and consumer satisfaction also yielded positive results. This exploratory study provides support for the use of CBC as a framework by which to join parents and teachers in the delivery of effective behavioural interventions for students with high functioning autism spectrum disorders in mainstream settings. The findings are discussed in relation to the limitations of the study, and to future research directions and implications for practice.     

Differentiated Curriculum Design: Responding to the Individual and Group Needs of Students with Learning Difficulties with Self‐regulated Learning Strategies

The purpose of this study was to explore special educational curriculum design at senior secondary school level and whether this helps to enhance the academic attainment and self‐confidence of students with learning difficulties. An in‐depth discussion focuses on lesson planning for the individual needs and group needs of students by implementation of self‐regulated learning strategies, based on a case study in a special school in Hong Kong. A multiple methods research design was envisaged for the implementation phase of this participatory action research. Lesson observations, video recordings, teachers’ diaries and students’ interviews were collected during one academic year in a form 5 (equal to year 12 in the UK) classroom. It is suggested that curriculum design should include various elements: learning knowledge, values and attitudes, and generic skills. This differentiated curriculum design showed how subject learning targets could be responsive to both the individual and the group needs of students with learning difficulties. Conclusions also indicate that assisting students to become aware of their individual needs is beneficial both for learning and for curriculum design.     

Associations between socio‐economic status (including school‐ and pupil‐level interactions) and student perceptions of school environment and health in English secondary schools

This article examines interactions between school‐level and pupil‐level measures of socio‐economic status for pupil reports of the school environment and a range of risk behaviours and health outcomes. The baseline survey for the INCLUSIVE trial provided data on pupil affluence and pupil reports of the school environment, smoking, drinking, anti‐social behaviour at school, quality of life and psychological wellbeing for over 6,000 pupils (aged 11–12 years) in 40 schools within a 1‐hour train journey from central London. The level of socio‐economic disadvantage of the school was measured using the percentage of pupils eligible for free school meals. Multilevel regression models examined the association between pupil affluence, the socio‐economic composition of the school and the interaction between these with the school environment, risk behaviours and health outcomes. Our findings provide some evidence for interactions, suggesting that less affluent pupils reported lower psychological wellbeing and quality of life in schools with more socio‐economically advantaged intakes. There appears to be a complex relationship for anti‐social behaviour. Where pupil affluence and school socio‐economic composition were discordant, pupils reported a higher number of anti‐social behaviours. This article provides further evidence that less affluent pupils are more likely to engage in a variety of risk behaviours and experience worse health outcomes when they attend schools with more socio‐economically advantaged intakes, supporting some of the mechanisms described in the theory of human functioning and school organisation.