Group counseling in the schools: Legal,ethical, and treatment issues in school practice

School psychologists are interested in providing effective and efficient direct services to children. With a wide spectrum of psychological problems impacting children, group counseling represents one viable and valuable intervention. Given the complexity of group counseling, many schools and school psychologists are interested in legal and ethical issues impacting group interventions. From the attainment of appropriate consents for counseling to ethical dilemmas, the challenges involved in direct services are large. This article reviews mental health issues transforming children's mental health, considers differing group counseling models and stages of group development, and examines contemporary legal and ethical dilemmas inherent in school practice. Uniquely, a question‐and‐answer format is used to highlight legal issues for practice. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ ETHICAL STRAIN AND RUMINATION: INDIVIDUAL PROFILES AND THEIR ASSOCIATIONS WITH WEEKLY WELL‐BEING

We investigated school psychologists’ experiences of ethical strain (the frequency of ethical dilemmas at work and the stress caused by these dilemmas) and dilemma‐related rumination outside working hours. Individual latent profiles were estimated at the study baseline based on these three dimensions. The psychologists’ weekly well‐being (vigor, exhaustion, and sleep quality) was compared against their profile during the following three working weeks. The sample included 133 school psychologists, among whom four groups were identified: Low ruminators (39%), an Intermediate group (39%), High ruminators (20%), and Atypical outliers (2%). High ruminators fared least well in terms of weekly well‐being. Of all the groups, they reported the lowest levels of vigor, the highest levels of exhaustion, and the lowest sleep quality. The study contributes to understanding how psychologists differ in their experiences of ethical strain, and highlights the role of ruminating: mental detachment from ethical demands is especially important for school psychologists’ well‐being.     

The Blueprint I revisited: Training and practice in school psychology

In 1984, the National School Psychology Inservice Training Network (NSPITN) published School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice (Blueprint I), which recognized that America's public schools were troubled and focused on how school psychology could help with a transformation; the role of school psychologists was divided into 16 practice domains. In 1997, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) published a successor, School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II (Blueprint II), which credits the first edition with having “driven much of the progress in school psychology.” To better understand the impact of the Blueprint I, this study analyzes responses from Nebraska and Iowa school psychologists about it, finding that doctoral-level respondents believed that they were more competently trained than subdoctoral school psychologists in the research domain; quality of training was rated higher by respondents receiving degrees after 1984 in class management, classroom organization and social structures, interpersonal communication and consultation, legal/ethical and professional issues, multicultural concerns, parental involvement, research, and systems development and planning. Analyses revealed numerous areas of congruence and dissonance between training and practice. Respondents reported a preference to decrease the amount of time spent in assessment and increase the time spent in all other domains (except basic academic skills). The relevance to the Blueprint II and the implications for school psychology training and practices are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A THREE‐TIERED APPROACH TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE POLICY AND PRACTICE

Research indicates that school discipline policies and practices have a significant influence on both student and school functioning. The purpose of this article is to uncover how the ethical standards guiding the field of school psychology inform school decisions about discipline in a three‐tiered approach. Various discipline approaches, empirical research evaluating the effectiveness of these approaches, and the role of school psychologists in school discipline decision making are reviewed. Ultimately, this integration of theory, empirical research, and ethical standards points to the importance of creating comprehensive and individualized school discipline policies that apply ethically sound practices at all three tiers of intervention. Implications for practicing school psychologists are discussed.     

Juggling personal life and professionalism: Ethical implications for rural school psychologists

Rural communities often contain unique features that separate them from more urban communities. Although a body of research is devoted to ethical considerations for psychologists working in rural communities as a whole, much less current research is focused on working in rural schools. This paper specifically highlights ethical considerations regarding competence, multiple relationships, and confidentiality. Given that access to services within the community may be limited, school psychologists may encounter cases that are outside of their area of competence. Furthermore, due to the interconnectedness present in many rural communities, psychologists frequently have multiple relationships with those whom they have professional contact. Confidentiality may be compromised when families and school personnel also have multiple relationships. These factors must be considered by psychologists working in rural schools, and steps must be taken at the outset of practice to ensure ethical compliance. More specific means of obtaining this compliance are discussed in this paper.     

Ethical and legal landmines: Causal inference in special education decisions

In this article, we discuss conflict between law and science relative to the presumption in special education law that multidisciplinary teams and others identify the causes of problems giving rise to special education needs. First, we explain eligibility criteria, highlighting ambiguities therein and why criteria constitute a mandate for causal inference, and present illustrative examples of how judges have interpreted this mandate. Second, we discuss as a counterpoint school psychologists’ ethical duties to conduct evaluations based on the best available science, and highlight the clear conflicts between the law, ethics, and research. We present the biopsychosocial model of development as a potential framework for reconciling one's legal duty to infer causation with the current evidence base. We conclude with implications for policy and practice and suggestions for future research.     

NAVIGATING SOCIAL NETWORKING AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TRAINING PROGRAMS

Social networking and social media have undoubtedly proliferated within the past decade, allowing widespread communication and dissemination of user‐generated content and information. Some psychology graduate programs, including school psychology, have started to embrace social networking and media for instructional and training purposes; however, there have not been any consistent ethical guidelines or standards among training programs relating to how trainers, graduate students, and practitioners should use social networking and social media professionally. This article draws on the current yet limited research on social networking and social media, and addresses the ethical challenges when managing both professional and personal online identities in school psychology. Two relevant case scenarios are discussed, along with suggested guidelines for developing technological policies for school psychologists. Future directions in research and practical implications for trainers, graduate students, and practitioners are explored.     

MINDFULNESS IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: APPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTION AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

Although the use of mindfulness is increasing in other areas of applied psychology, school psychology has yet to embrace it in practice. This article introduces school psychologists to the burgeoning field of mindfulness psychology and to the possibilities that it offers to their discipline. A background on the Western scientific study and application of mindfulness provides a theoretical foundation to those unfamiliar with the topic. We then discuss the application of mindfulness technologies to various forms of service provision in the professional practice of school psychology. The innovative and novel avenues that mindfulness psychology offers to psychological science     

Factitious disorder in school settings: A case example with implications for school psychologists

Factitious disorder is a condition that has received considerable attention in the medical literature yet is not fully recognized in the school setting. School psychologists can provide important data and observations that can facilitate early identification of this disorder. This article describes a case example of factitious disorder that was identified in the school setting. Symptoms of the disorder are presented, as are the differential diagnoses that must be considered. Specific recommendations for the school psychologist regarding identification, coordination with medical teams, interventions, and ethical and legal obligations are included. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Prevention Through Consultation: A Model to Guide Future Developments in the Field of School Psychology

The Invitational Conference on the Future of School Psychology held at Indiana University in 2002 had implications for consultation. It addressed projected shortages in school psychologists that provide a rationale for service delivery models integrating consultation and prevention. The conference discussed the need for effective work with children, families, and professionals from diverse cultures; success in fostering productive home-school connections; optimal and ethical use of rapidly changing technologies; and the use of empirical evidence to inform practice. This article presents a model of consultation and prevention informed by recent research in positive psychology as well as public health models. This model is discussed in the context of these and other important developments in the field of school psychology.     

Delivering school‐based mental health services by school psychologists: Education,training, and ethical issues

Consistent with the priority goals of the 2002 Future of School Psychology Conference, the National Association of School Psychologists' Blueprint for Training and Practice III advocates for school psychologists becoming “leading mental health experts in schools.” In this regard, the present article reviews the prevalence and incidence of children's mental health problems in the schools, followed by a historical overview of the nature of school‐based mental health services. We discuss education and training issues and related ethical and professional practice issues that focus on the ethics codes of the National Association of School Psychologists and the American Psychological Association that are associated with the delivery of mental health services by school psychologists. Recommendations are offered for graduate‐level coursework and field experiences in the delivery of school‐based mental health services, as well as future directions for research in this area. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

THE LEGAL CONTENT OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY JOURNALS: A SYSTEMATIC SURVEY

The many challenges that school psychologists face inevitably include legal issues. In light of the agreement between the two primary professional organizations for school psychologists that understanding of law is a critical competency, this study analyzed the extent of law‐based articles in leading school psychology journal articles published from 1970 to mid‐2013. The method was a systematic multi‐step search, selection and coding process. The primary findings included that (a) a very small proportion of the articles in five leading school psychology journals contained a notable level of legal content; (b) the number of these articles initially trended upward but stabilized at a lower level during recent decades; (c) assessment and special education were the most frequent subject categories, and (d) the principal sources of law were federal legislation/regulations and court decisions. The discussion includes implications for professional practice and recommendations for follow‐up research.     

CURRENT AND FUTURE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PREPAREDNESS TO WORK WITH LGBT STUDENTS: ROLE OF EDUCATION AND GAY‐STRAIGHT ALLIANCES

This study sought to assess current and future school psychologists’ attitudes toward and preparedness to address the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students in schools. Two‐hundred seventy‐nine school psychologists (n = 162, 58%) and school psychology graduate students (n = 117, 42%) were included in the study. Participants completed measures of attitudes toward LGBT students, preparedness to address the needs of LGBT youth, and social desirability. For both school psychologists and graduate students, increased education was associated with improved attitudes and increased preparedness to treat LGBT youth. For school psychologists, presence of a gay‐straight alliance was associated with increased knowledge about LGBT youth, as well as higher ratings of preparedness to treat LGBT youth; the same associations did not hold true for the graduate students. These findings have implications for the training and practice of school psychologists in addressing the needs of LGBT youth in schools.     

Private practice of school psychology: Implications from the APA specialty guidelines

A model of school psychology private practice is developed that is appropriate to the unique training and experience of school psychologists and is consistent with the professional functions outlined in the Specialty Guidelines for rhe Delivery of Services by School Psychologists developed by the American Psychological Association. Each of the six functions is examined to see how it could be conducted effectively within the parameters of private practice. Client populations and recruitment efforts are addressed briefly. A cautionary note is sounded about several potential ethical conflicts that have particular relevance to the private practice of school psychology; i.e., competence, communication of services to the public, and conflicts of interest.     

Assisting children and families who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices: Best practices for school psychologists

In developing individual education plans for children who need assistive technology devices, school psychologists will increasingly be called upon to assist in the decision making process regarding electronic augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices. A thorough assessment is required to select a device that is most appropriate for the child and their family. Assessment factors which must be considered within five domains (child, AAC device, service system, family, culture) are reviewed. A self-checklist is provided to help school psychologists develop and conduct thorough “best practice” assessments for the target population. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

YOUR HANDS ARE (NOT) TIED: SCHOOL‐BASED ETHICS WHEN PARENTS REVOKE SPECIAL EDUCATION CONSENT

Parents currently have the unilateral ability to reject special education services. Yet, it is unclear how schools should support students with special education needs in this situation as schools may not challenge a parent's choice to revoke special education assessment consent or the provision of services. Guidelines for school professionals to address this quandary currently do not exist, thus this paper will draw on legal mandates, court precedents, and ethical analysis to provide recommendations for appropriate responses to these situations. In particular, what the related laws dictate, how to support students in the general education classroom, and how to deal with behavior and disciplinary infractions are discussed with attention to the National Association of School Psychologist's ethics for school psychologists.     

SUPERVISION AND MENTORING FOR EARLY CAREER SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS: AVAILABILITY,ACCESS, STRUCTURE,AND IMPLICATIONS

This study is the first national survey of supervision and mentoring practices for early career school psychologists (ECSPs). Respondents included 700 participants, 38% of whom reported having access to professional supervision. Time, availability, and proximity to a supervisor were found to be the most common barriers to accessing supervision and mentoring; access to technology, supervisor interest, and cost were not found to be as significant. Nearly 30% of ECSPs reported feeling pressure to practice outside their boundaries of competence because they did not have access to mentoring or supervision, suggesting a potential ethical concern. Results demonstrate the need to provide more supervision and mentoring opportunities for ECSPs, particularly given the National Association of School Psychologist's requirement that first‐time Nationally Certified School Psychologist renewal applicants complete a year of mentoring or supervision. Implications of the results, strategies to support the barriers to access, and future directions for research are addressed.     

IDENTIFYING AND CULTIVATING LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Though National Association of School Psychologists standards acknowledge the urgent need for leadership skills among school psychologists and loosely define a leadership agenda, a cogent model for the training and practice of this skill set has not yet been explicated. The formulation of a preliminary conceptual framework is a particularly pressing agenda for school psychology practitioners and academicians who, in response to the call for increased accountability in general and special education, must shift curricula from a traditional diagnostic/consultative/intervention framework to include topics related to organizational effectiveness. The objective of this article is to identify key behaviors, skills, dispositions, and contextual variables that will facilitate successful leadership among practicing school psychologists and then to propose considerations for specialist‐level training in school psychology.     

TRAINING,DEGREES, AND CREDENTIALS IN THE HIRING OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

A national sample of 246 Directors of Pupil Personnel Services and Directors of Special Education were surveyed to assess the importance they place on training, degrees, and credentials in the hiring of school psychologists. High, but varying, levels of importance were found for the content knowledge and skill areas in the National Association of School Psychologists Standards for Graduate Preparation of School Psychologists. Participants indicated that the specialist degree with less than 10 years of experience was the preferred qualification for school psychologist applicants. Greater importance was placed on the Nationally Certified School Psychologist credential than State Board of Examiners in Psychology (SBEP) licensure, with variations in importance for SBEP licensure between states that do versus do not allow independent practice for nondoctoral school psychologists. Implications of this research for school psychologists and training, as well as limitations of the study, are discussed.     

A current landscape of specific learning disability identification: Training,practices, and implications

Specific learning disability (SLD) identification procedures vary across states (Maki et al., 2015, School Psychol Quart, 30, 457–469); however, the extent to which SLD identification methods are implemented at the district level is not well understood. Moreover, the high‐stakes nature of SLD identification necessitates extensive training, but research regarding graduate and postgraduate training in SLD is limited. This study examined school psychologists’ SLD training and practices through survey methodology. Results showed that a growing number of school psychologists use, prefer, and receive training in response to intervention and pattern of strengths and weaknesses to identify students with SLD while the use of and preference for ability–achievement discrepancy may be decreasing. However, nearly one‐third of school psychologists still reported the use of ability–achievement discrepancy. In addition, over half of school psychologists reported using state department of education guidance documents to inform their SLD identification practices. Implications for training and practice are discussed.