Self-fulfilling prophecies in media-based learning: Content relevance moderates quality expectation effects on academic achievement

In the present paper a model of self-fulfilling prophecy effects in media-based learning was developed and tested. The central model assumption was that information about an instructional medium's quality affects students' academic achievement depending on the instructional content's relevance to the student. Experiment 1 (N = 100) demonstrated higher achievement in response to positive compared to negative information, but not the predicted moderating effect of content relevance. Using a revised relevance manipulation, Experiment 2 (N = 199) identified the following moderating function of content relevance: Under moderate relevance positive information led to higher achievement, under high relevance negative information resulted in higher achievement. No differences appeared under low relevance. Path analyses revealed students' cognitive effort as significant mediator for these effects.     

Interactive and non-interactive pictures in multimedia learning environments: Effects on learning outcomes and learning efficiency

New technologies enable flexible combinations of text and interactive or non-interactive pictures. The aim of the present study was to investigate (a) whether adding pictures to texts is generally beneficial for learning or whether it can also have detrimental effects, (b) how interactivity of pictures affects learning, (c) whether the visualization format of pictures affects the structure of the learner's mental model, and (d) whether the visualization format modifies the effects of interactivity. One hundred university students were randomly assigned to five groups. In four groups, a text about the different daytimes and days on the earth was combined with interactive or non-interactive pictures of different visualization formats. In the fifth group, the text was presented without pictures. According to the results, adding pictures to text was neither beneficial nor harmful for learning. In terms of learning efficiency, however, learning from text only was more successful than learning from text and pictures. Interactivity was beneficial for one learning task, but not for the other task. The visualization format affected participants’ interaction with pictures, but not the learning outcomes; however this effect was not influenced by interactivity. Implications for multimedia design and for further research are pointed out.     

Improving the quality of student learning: the influence of learning context and student approaches to learning on learning outcomes

Previous studies of the relationship between perceptions and/or evaluations of the learning environment and approaches to study have either not included measures of students' learning outcomes, or have included quantitative differences and not qualitative differences in learning outcomes. The studies reported in this paper focus on the relationship between qualitative differences in learning outcomes, perceptions/evaluations of the learning environment and approaches to study. The results support previous research in identifying relationships between perceptions/evaluations of the learning environment and approach to study and between approach to study and the quality of the learning outcomes. The second of the two studies reported also identifies a relationship between perceptions, approaches and the quality of the outcomes. The results suggest that perceived environments which encourage deep approaches are more likely to facilitate higher quality learning than environments designed to discourage surface approaches.     

Effects of reflection prompts on learning outcomes and learning behaviour in statistics education

Starting from difficulties that students display when they deal with correlation analysis, an e-learning environment (‘Koralle’) was developed. The design was inspired by principles of situated and example-based learning. In order to facilitate reflective processes and thus enhance learning outcomes, reflection prompts were integrated into the learning environment. A total of 57 university students were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: 28 students were prompted to give reasons for their decisions while working within the learning environment (EG 1); and 29 students dealt with Koralle without being prompted (EG 2). The control group consisted of 67 students who had already attended regular statistics lectures but had no access to the e-learning environment. EG 1 scored significantly higher in the posttest than EG 2, and the effect was practically relevant and sustainable. Reflection prompts did not influence time on task, task choices and motivational outcomes. Both experimental groups clearly outperformed the control group.     

Depth of processing and the quality of learning outcomes

Problems associated with earlier research on the relationship between depth of processing and quality of learning outcomes are first discussed. Then I present an interview study with 60 second year tertiary students which supports the hypothesis that depth of processing is related to the quality of learning outcomes.     

Effects of virtual reality on learning outcomes in K-6 education: A meta-analysis

Virtual reality (VR) has gained popularity in educational environments in recent years. Its presence and immersive characteristics enable new learning possibilities. Due to this growth, many studies have been conducted to assess the impact of VR on learning outcomes. The proliferation of experimental studies has created the need for meta-analyses that summarize the effect of VR in terms of learning gain. However, in the current literature there are few reviews focused on K-6 students and on analyzing the influence of some variables: the level of immersion, the length of the intervention, and the knowledge domain. The present meta-analysis aims to respond to these needs. After a pre-selection of 4658 references published between 2010 and 2021, 21 experimental studies were finally included in the meta-analysis. The results indicate that, on average, VR promotes greater student learning in comparison to control conditions (ES = 0.64). Moreover, this effect is even greater when immersive VR (ES = 1.11) is used compared to semi-immersive (ES = 0.19) and non-immersive systems (ES = 0.32). This effect does not depend on the educational level (kindergarten (ES = 0.59), 1–3 (ES = 0.69), 4–6 (ES = 0.70)), and most of the knowledge domains in which VR is used. Moreover, short interventions –less than 2 h– (ES = 0.72) are more effective than those lasting longer (ES = 0.49).     

Effects of flipping the classroom on learning outcomes and satisfaction: A meta-analysis

In a flipped classroom, students study instructional material before class and apply this material during class. To provide a statistical synthesis of current research on effects of flipped classrooms, we conducted meta-analyses that included 114 studies which compared flipped and non-flipped classrooms in secondary and postsecondary education. We found a small positive effect on learning outcomes, but no effect was found on student satisfaction regarding the learning environment. In addition, we found considerable heterogeneity between studies. Moderator analyses showed that students in flipped classrooms achieve higher learning outcomes when the face-to-face class time was not reduced compared to non-flipped classrooms, or when quizzes were added in the flipped classrooms. We conclude that a flipping the classroom (FTC) approach is a promising pedagogical approach when appropriately designed. Our results provide insights into effective instructional FTC design characteristics that support an evidence-informed application of FTC.     

Effects of elicited reflections combined with tutor or peer feedback on self-regulated learning and learning outcomes

This study investigated the effects of students' reflections, combined with suggestive feedback, on the development of self-regulated learning and learning outcomes. Suggestive feedback alerts students that further reflection is advisable, without being very directive. Forty-nine students participated in a regular web-based distance education course on work psychology. In two experimental conditions students were prompted to reflect on their learning process, and received feedback on their reflections, either from peer students or a tutor. These conditions were compared to a control condition in which students studied the regular course without reflection and feedback. In line with the hypothesis, results showed that reflection combined with feedback positively affected students' self-regulated learning. In addition, students in the condition with tutor feedback outperformed students in both other conditions on learning outcomes.     

Using checklists in a gross anatomy laboratory improves learning outcomes and dissection quality

Checklists have been widely used in the aviation industry ever since aircraft operations became more complex than any single pilot could reasonably remember. More recently, checklists have found their way into medicine, where cognitive function can be compromised by stress and fatigue. The use of checklists in medical education has rarely been reported, especially in the basic sciences. We explored whether the use of a checklist in the gross anatomy laboratory would improve learning outcomes, dissection quality, and students' satisfaction in the first-year Human Structure didactic block at Mayo Medical School. During the second half of a seven-week anatomy course, dissection teams were each day given a hardcopy checklist of the structures to be identified during that day's dissection. The first half of the course was considered the control, as students did not receive any checklists to utilize during dissection. The measured outcomes were scored on four practice practical examinations and four dissection quality assessments, two each from the first half (control) and second half of the course. A student satisfaction survey was distributed at the end of the course. Examination and dissection scores were analyzed for correlations between practice practical examination score and checklist use. Our data suggest that a daily hardcopy list of anatomical structures for active use in the gross anatomy laboratory increases practice practical examination scores and dissection quality. Students recommend the use of these checklists in future anatomy courses.     

Effects of mathematics learning through children's literature on math achievement and dispositional outcomes

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of using children's literature to promote mathematics learning. Fifty-seven kindergarteners were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The experimental group received mathematics related storybook reading and discussion time and played with mathematics materials that were related to the storybook content during free play. The control group had ordinary storybook reading time and played with mathematics materials unrelated to the storybook content. The Learning Readiness Test and the Early Mathematics Achievement Test were administered. Four mathematics tasks were also given to compare the mathematics achievement of the two groups. The children's choice of favorite corners, the time spent, and the number of children who played in the mathematics corner were investigated also to measure children's disposition toward doing mathematics. The results showed that more children in the experimental group liked the mathematics comer, chose mathematics tasks, and spent more time in the mathematics corner. Furthermore, the experimental group did significantly better than the control group in the classification, number combination, and shape tasks, and there were qualitative differences in the content analysis.     

Hunting and gathering: new imperatives in mapping and collecting student learning data to assure quality outcomes

Assurance of learning (AOL) is a quality enhancement and quality assurance process used in higher education. It involves a process of determining programme learning outcomes and standards, and systematically gathering evidence to measure students' performance on these. The systematic assessment of whole-of-programme outcomes provides a basis for curriculum development and management, continuous improvement, and accreditation. To better understand how AOL processes operate, a national study of university practices across one discipline area, business and management, was undertaken. To solicit data on AOL practice, interviews were undertaken with a sample of business school representatives (n?=?25). Two key processes emerged: (1) mapping of graduate attributes and (2) collection of assurance data. External drivers such as professional accreditation and government legislation were the primary reasons for undertaking AOL outcomes but intrinsic motivators in relation to continuous improvement were also evident. The facilitation of academic commitment was achieved through an embedded approach to AOL by the majority of universities in the study. A sustainable and inclusive process of AOL was seen to support wider stakeholder engagement in the development of higher education learning outcomes.     

Alternative perspectives on learning outcomes: challenges for assessment

In discussing the relationship between curriculum and assessment it is commonly argued that assessment should be aligned to curriculum or, alternatively, that they should be congruent with each other. This article explores that relationship in five educational contexts in the UK and in Europe, ranging across school education, workplace learning, vocational education and higher education. Four main themes are highlighted: construct definition, progression, assessment procedures, and system-level accountability. What emerges from the five case studies under review is a multi-layered process of knowledge being constructed in diverse ways at different levels in each context. The article concludes that, rather than thinking in terms of either alignment or congruence, these relationships are better understood in terms of non-linear systems embracing curriculum, pedagogy and assessment.     

Advances in research on classroom dialogue: learning outcomes and assessments

The goal of this special issue is to examine how certain modes of classroom dialogue might contribute to students' learning outcomes. The articles in this special issue share the idea of classroom talk as a problem-oriented dialogue. In other words, an interactional configuration based on exchanges among students and teachers that go beyond the predominantly monologic approaches of classroom talk. In each of the contributions to this special issue, different types of learning outcomes were studied as a result of specific ways of orchestrating classroom dialogue. All in all, the studies in this special issue yield a picture of the field as a productive research area: they provide evidence for the plausibility of the assumption that dialogic orchestrations of classroom talk may produce various desired learning and developmental outcomes in students, depending on what outcomes we want to articulate, and how they are assessed. Although the studies in this special issue yield promising results for future improvements of classroom practice more (preferably longitudinal) research is required.     

Fortune is fickle: null-effects of disfluency on learning outcomes

Recently, Diemand-Yauman et al. Cognition, 118, 114–118 (2011) demonstrated that learning with disfluent (hard-to-read) materials is more effective than learning with easy-to-read materials – a study that has since stipulated a number of follow-up studies (with mixed results). However, there is a potential confound in the original experiments: The disfluent materials were not only disfluent but also rather unusual. Therefore, they might have been particularly distinctive and have attracted more attention, which then resulted in better learning. We conducted three experiments to address this confound, all of them slightly modified replications of Diemand-Yauman et al.’s Experiment 1. Participants received five lists, either at their own pace on a computer screen (Experiment 1) or experimenter-paced on paper (Experiments 2 & 3). In Experiments 1 and 2, participants either received one fluent and four disfluent lists or they received four fluent lists and one disfluent list. The position of the distinct list varied across participants. In Experiment 3, the distinct list was always the penultimate one. In none of the experiments, learning performance was affected by any of the experimental manipulations. Our results question the generality of the disfluency effect with respect to learning.     

Researching learning outcomes: building confidence in our conclusions

The ESRC Teaching and Learning Research Programme is expected to produce knowledge of high social scientific quality and practical pedagogic value. It faces, in a particularly acute form, the issue of how confidence in its conclusions can be built. This article begins with some conceptual clarification of the notion of a ‘warrant’ for research findings and distinguishes between warrants in social research and warrants for educational policy and practice. It then, in the specific context of research on learning outcomes, proposes an integrated model that recognizes the importance of, and relationships among, criteria associated with research design and empirical work, theoretical coherence, relationship with other research, and user affirmation. It concludes by emphasizing the need for continuing debate about, and development of, the roles and relationships of ‘researchers’ and ‘users’.