Instructional means to overcome transfer problems in the domain of economics: empirical studies

In a computer-based learning environment (the simulation of a company) multiple learning contexts were established. Additionally, the learners were provided with a problem-solving guidance. In a second learning environment based on worked-out examples, multiple examples as well as a guidance for example elaboration were employed. Multiple examples only proved to be effective in fostering transfer performance when they were combined with the respective supporting means. However, without additional support, learners were overtaxed by multiple learning conditions. As a result, transfer performance was comparatively low. In order to optimize the two learning methods, learning by problem solving should be combined with worked-out examples. Moreover, learners should be supported with additional supporting means, such as expert comments and “instructional elaborations.”     

The impact of students’ exploration strategies on discovery learning using computer-based simulations

Discovery-based learning designs incorporating active exploration are common within instructional software. However, researchers have highlighted empirical evidence showing that “pure” discovery learning is of limited value and strategies which reduce complexity and provide guidance to learners are important if potential learning benefits are to be achieved. One approach to reducing complexity in discovery learning is limiting the range of possible actions for the learner to ensure that they do not undertake exploratory activities leading to confusion. This article reports on a study in which the learning outcomes from two learning conditions using computer-based simulations were compared. One condition allowed exploration through manipulation of simulation parameters, while the other allowed observation of simulation output from preset parameters, the latter condition designed to limit the complexity of the task. Learning outcomes for the 158 university student participants were assessed via pre-tests and post-tests of conceptual understanding. Students’ exploration activities were recorded and their strategies subsequently coded as either systematic or unsystematic. The results showed that when compared with observation, systematic exploration resulted in learning benefits, while unsystematic exploration did not. These results have implications for the design of discovery learning tasks and instructional guidance within computer-based simulations.     

“Sprouting” the Couch Potato: Techniques to Increase the Effort Learners Invest in Video-Based Materials

Although videotapes are a popular instructional medium in the training environment, viewers often adopt a passive stance toward learning from video. Viewers perceptions of video as a passive, “easy” medium may minimize the information they gain from video-based instruction. If instructional designers and trainers want to encourage the “couch potato” to process the content of a video-based lesson in an active manner, they should make sure that their lessons are designed to facilitate this process. This article discusses the relationship of mental effort to achievement, provides recommendations for designing video-based materials to increase the effort learners invest in the instruction, and presents a list of practical techniques for increasing learners' mental effort and achievement that can be incorporated into lessons that include video-based materials.     

Learning mathematics from worked-out examples: Analyzing and fostering self-explanations

Recent research has shown that learning from worked-out examples is of major importance for initial skill acquisition in well-structured domains such as mathematics. However, only those learners who actively process the presented examples profit noticeably from this learning mode. Specifically, the learning outcomes depend on how well the learners explain the solution steps presented in the examples to themselves (‘self-explanation effect”). In a series of studies on learning mathematics from examples, learners’ spontaneous self-explanations and instructional means used to encourage self-explanations were investigated. In this research, the following main findings were obtained. Most learners were rather passive with respect to their spontaneous self-explanations. Among the active and successful learners, two subgroups employing different self-explanation styles could be identified. With regard to the instructional means used to induce effective example processing, it turned out that to employ “learning by teaching” in order to stimulate explanation activities was of very limited use. Attempts to directly train for or elicit certain types of self-explanations were more successful. However, even in the latter case, self-explanations had inherent deficits (e.g., proneness to errors). Thus, we sought to design learning arrangements that try to integrate self-explanations with well-timed and well-adapted instructional explanations (e.g., from tutors) in order to enhance students’ problem-solving skills.     

Science Learning in Special Education: The Case for Constructed Versus Instructed Learning

Throughout the history of education, debate has existed between the relative merits of instructed versus constructed knowledge. In this article, we review our program of research in science education for students with disabilities in order to reveal some insights into this debate. We review research in science curriculum, mnemonic strategies, text-processing strategies, hands-on approaches, coached elaborations, “discovery” learning, correlates of effective inclusive science classrooms, and class-wide peer tutoring with differentiated curriculum enhancements. Overall, both instructed and constructed knowledge are important and can be facilitated with appropriate instructional strategies. Implications for practice and future research are provided.     

公共管理类课程案例教学的探索与实践--以内蒙古师范大学为例

案例教学法改变了传统“填鸭式”教学灌输式、封闭式、学生被动地接受知识、缺乏体验与反思的状况,使学生从被动学习转变为积极主动参与课堂教学,在体验中提升能力、掌握知识。案例教学法精髓主要表现为变被动式学习为主动式学习、“集中轰炸式”培训、“唯一”不受欢迎、案例教学是成本最低的“社会实践”。在探索过程中呈现出来“三个一”教学法、“体验、讨论参与、分享式”课堂教学方法等独具创新的方法,在公共管理类课程教学实践中取得了良好的效果。     

Effects of multiple solution methods in mathematics learning

Most mathematical problems can be solved using different methods. We tested the effectiveness of presenting more than one solution method by means of worked-out examples. In Experiment 1, a 2 × 3-factorial design was implemented (“multiple solutions”: multiple/uniform; “instructional support”: none/self-explanations/instructional explanations). Multiple solutions fostered learning. However, no positive effect was found for instructional support. In Experiment 2, effects of varying the representational code of solutions were studied, using three conditions (multiple solutions with multiple representations; multiple solutions sharing one representation; uniform solution). No effect of multiple solutions on learning was found. They even reduced some important spontaneous learning activities. Further research should focus on the context conditions under which multiple solutions are effective.     

Task analysis ‐ its relation to content analysis 1

The origins, meaning, and elaborations of task analysis are discussed in relation to the design of instruction. Learning task analysis is described as having the purpose of identifying and classifying the performances that are the outcomes of learning, and also those subordinate performances that are prerequisite to such learning. As a technique, task analysis begins with the expected performance and works backwards to the stimulus situation (i.e., the “content"). This procedure contrasts with content analysis, which categorizes the components of existing content. It is argued that the procedures of task analysis can be employed, if desired, in analyzing existing content to reveal its probably intended outcomes. In addition, some problems are discussed in using task analysis to predetermine the characteristics of content for instructional design.     

Design for learning: Adapting the microscopic anatomy laboratory to adult learners

Medical school curricula are undergoing transformational change in response to calls for integrating content across courses and years to enable better retention and application and for individualizing learning to meet the diverse backgrounds and thus differing needs of students. To address the related teaching challenges, faculty can employ solid principles of adult learning and instructional design and use teaching strategies that stimulate different learning styles. We developed laboratory sessions that follow a learner‐centered instructional design model we refer to as “PLHET,” reflecting the steps of preparing, linking, hooking, engaging, and transferring learning, and also applied teaching strategies that reflect Kolb's four styles of learning (accommodative, divergent, assimilative, and convergent). We utilized a group learning format to promote active learning, teamwork, and self‐direction. Preliminary data based on student surveys of laboratory activity show positive responses. In the future, we will test the hypothesis that this design will improve medical students' performance. Anat Sci Educ © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.     

Enacting instructional leadership: perspectives and actions of public K-12 principals

This article’s purpose is to highlight the perspectives and actions of urban, public school K-12 principals who are noted for prioritising instructional leadership. Grounded in the conceptual framework of agency, I examined the work experiences of 18 New York City public school principals nominated by supervisors, colleagues, trained educational consultants, parents, and students through a four-phase qualitative study consisting of interviews, time surveys, document review, and observations with participants. In order to uphold instructional leadership, analysis highlighted that participants assumed agency by engendering perspectives and actions that viewed instructional leadership as: grounded in learning, influenced by teachers/staff, requiring time and planning for principals and teachers/staff, and calls for teacher/staff empowerment.     

Metacognition as a Basis for Learning Support Software

In order to understand the task of instructional designers who produce learning support software, this paper reviews the influence of learning theory on instructional design, recent developments in computer technology, and the evolving role of the instructor as a facilitator of higher-order thinking. Constructivist principles of learning and an appreciation for the fact that the learner must become more independent and skilled in metacognitive self-assessment and self-management are fundamental to this changing role. Two cognitive tools that provide learner/user support for personal construction of knowledge systems are “MindMap” and “Learning FourMat Processor.” These tools are examined in the light of current learning theory and a recent study comparing the work of novice and expert writers using different forms of performance support. Recommendations are made for the development of a more complete set of cognitive tools that enables users to construct their own multimedia knowledge systems based on higher-order thinking and problem solving.     

Serious game in introductory psychology for professional awareness: Optimal learner control and authenticity

Introductory Psychology courses in Higher Education lack application of knowledge in solving work-based problems. We develop and study mini-games that support a more active and experiential way of learning to increase professional awareness. This paper describes the instructional design and the factors under study: learner control and authenticity. We compared professional awareness and perceived authenticity for the old (without game, n = 130) and new course (with game, n = 197) by administering pre- and post-questionnaires. Participants were allocated to game variants, differing in freedom of assignment order (less or more learner control) and number of sources available (less or more authentic). We computer logged their game actions, and asked them additional questions about gameplay that concerned aspects like motivation, flow, performance, learnability and usability. Both courses improved professional awareness (knowledge gains of 4% for the old and 12% for the new course), but only in the new course with mini-games this was significant. Students evaluated gameplay and their content as “more than sufficient” to “good.” A free order of assignments was found to produce more effective (in-game) performance, and the provision of more sources was found to improve learnability, authentic learning and appreciations of gameplay.     

Whole-Part-Whole Learning Model

The Whole–Part–Whole (WPW) Learning Model goes beyond the present holistic, behavioristic, wholepart, and part–whole learning models. The WPW Learning Model purports that there is a natural whole–part–whole rhythm to learning. Through the “first Whole,” the Model introduces new content to learners by forming in their minds the organizational framework required to effectively and efficiently absorb the forthcoming concepts into their repertoire of expertise. The supporting expertise and component behaviors are then developed in the classical behavioristic style of instruction found in the “Parts” aspect of the WPW Learning Model. After learners have successfully achieved the performance criteria for the individual “Parts,” or components within the whole, the instructor links these parts together, thus forming the “second Whole.” The whole–part–whole learning experience provides the learner with the complete understanding of the content at various levels of performance and allows for higher order development. The WPW Learning Model can be considered systematic on several counts. One is that the model can be utilized from initial program design to real–time (just in time) instructional adjustments during a live presentation.     

Using the Jigsaw Method to Teach Abdominal Anatomy

This study evaluates a cooperative learning approach for teaching anatomy to health science students incorporating small group and peer instruction based on the jigsaw method first described in the 1970's. Fifty-three volunteers participated in abdominal anatomy workshops. Students were given time to become an “expert” in one of four segments of the topic (sub-topics) by allocating groups to work-stations with learning resources: axial computerized tomography (CT) of abdominal structures, axial CT of abdominal blood vessels, angiograms and venograms of abdominal blood vessels and structures located within abdominal quadrants. In the second part of workshop, students were redistributed into “jigsaw” learning groups with at least one “expert” at each workstation. The “jigsaw” learning groups then circulated between workstations learning all sub-topics with the “expert” teaching others in their group. To assess abdominal anatomy knowledge, students completed a quiz pre- and post- workshop. Students increased their knowledge with significant improvements in quiz scores irrespective of prior exposure to lectures or practical classes related to the workshop topic. The evidence for long-term retention of knowledge, assessed by comparing end-semester examination performance of workshop participants with workshop nonparticipants, was less convincing. Workshop participants rated the jigsaw workshop highly for both educational value and enjoyment and felt the teaching approach would improve their course performance. The jigsaw method improved anatomy knowledge in the short-term by engaging students in group work and peer-led learning, with minimal supervision required. Reported outcomes suggest that cooperative learning approaches can lead to gains in student performance and motivation to learn. Anat Sci Educ 00: 000–000. © 2018 American Association of Anatomists.     

Blocking in human causal learning is affected by outcome assumptions manipulated through causal structure

Additivity-related assumptions have been proven to modulate blocking in human causal learning. Typically, these assumptions are manipulated by means of pretraining phases (including exposure to different outcome magnitudes), or through explicit instructions. In two experiments, we used a different approach that involved neither pretraining nor instructional manipulations. Instead, we manipulated the causal structure in which the cues were embedded, thereby appealing directly to the participants’ prior knowledge about causal relations and how causes would add up to yield stronger outcomes. Specifically, in our “different-system” condition, the participants should assume that the outcomes would add up, whereas in our “same-system” condition, a ceiling effect would prevent such an assumption. Consistent with our predictions, Experiment 1 showed that, when two cues from separate causal systems were combined, the participants did expect a stronger outcome on compound trials, and blocking was found, whereas when the cues belonged to the same causal system, the participants did not expect a stronger outcome on compound trials, and blocking was not observed. The results were partially replicated in Experiment 2, in which this pattern was found when the cues were tested for the second time. This evidence supports the claim that prior knowledge about the nature of causal relations can affect human causal learning. In addition, the fact that we did not manipulate causal assumptions through pretraining renders the results hard to account for with associative theories of learning.     

How training on exact or approximate mental representations of number can enhance first-grade students’ basic number processing and arithmetic skills

Theories of psychology and mathematics education recommend two instructional approaches to develop students’ mental representations of number: The “exact” approach focuses on the development of exact representations of organized dot patterns; the “approximate” approach focuses on the approximate representation of analogue magnitudes. This study provides for the first time empirical evidence for the specific effects of these approaches by implementing them in a highly controlled learning environment. 147 first-graders were randomly assigned to one of three intervention groups that used an “exact”, an “approximate”, or both versions of the same computer game, or to a control group. Performance on tasks requiring exact or approximate number processing as well as achievement in arithmetic were measured before and after the intervention. Results show that performance improved on tasks related to the exact or approximate number aspect trained, but there was no crossover effect. Achievement in arithmetic increased for the experimental groups and tended to be higher after only exact or only approximate training. Implications for teaching and learning in the classroom are discussed.     

论“导、学、测、评”教学模式--靖远县城关中学课堂教学改革综述

“导、学、测、评”课堂教学模式是在广泛吸收国内外众多教学理论和教学模式的基础上创生的。“导、学、测、评”课堂教学模式主要包括创设情境、揭示目标、指导自学、检查点拨、检测反思、拓展提升等六个环节。其中,“学”是基础,“导”是常态,“测”是抓手,“评”是升华。“导、学、测、评”课堂教学模式具有独特的制度保障和深厚的理论基础。     

Learning from scientific texts: personalizing the text increases transfer performance and task involvement

In an experiment with 65 high-school students, we tested the hypothesis that personalizing learning materials would increase students’ learning performance and motivation to study the learning materials. Students studied either a 915-word standard text on the anatomy and functionality of the human eye or a personalized version of the same text in which 60 definite articles (e.g., “the eye”) were replaced with 60 second-person possessive pronouns (e.g., “your eye”). Afterwards, participants answered comprehension and transfer questions. One week later, the participants were asked to restudy the text and to answer the same questions again with the aim to improve their performance. In the personalized text condition, students showed higher transfer performance, spent more time on restudying the text, and reported being more motivated than students in the standard text condition. However, only duration of restudying (not self-reported motivation) mediated the effect of personalization on transfer performance.     

In support of teachers’ learning: specifying and contextualising teacher inquiry as professional practice

Drawing upon research into a case study of teacher inquiry in one school in Queensland, Australia, recent theorising into professional practice, and relevant literature on teachers’ learning, this article reveals the complexity and particularity of teacher inquiry processes in support of teachers’ learning. Specifically, the research reveals how particular actions, dialogue, and relationships collectively constitute a practice of teacher inquiry which seeks to promote substantive teacher-led learning. The research draws upon a group of Year 5 teachers engaged in collective inquiry into their work in what was described as an “Inquiry Cycle” approach in a school in northern Queensland, during a period of support for substantial curriculum reform. The research reveals the Inquiry Cycle approach as characterised by specific actions, dialogue, and relationships – “doings,” “sayings,” and “relatings” – productive of the development of a learning culture focused on significant curriculum reform; overt support for whole-school “explicit” approaches to teachers’ pedagogies; and active/robust critique of data-focused assessment processes. The research reveals necessary texture and detail in support of teachers’ learning, and the specific circumstances and contextual “arrangements” that help constitute this learning.