The role of cognitive style and its influence on proportional reasoning

It has been suggested that proportional reasoning tasks contain field effects. Field-dependent students are considered to be highly influenced by the structure of the perceptual field and lack an articulated conceptual framework. To test the hypothesis that there is a significant correlation between field independence and proportional reasoning tasks, a sample of science students were tested to determine performance in proportional reasoning and degree of field independence. It was found that even students who are normally capable of proportional reasoning can be misled by the presence of field effects. A significant correlation (r = 0.50; p = 0.001) was found between the test of field independence and the nine items of proportional reasoning. Educational implications are drawn.     

Scientific reasoning in elementary school children: Assessment and relations with cognitive abilities

The primary goal of this study was the broad assessment and modeling of scientific reasoning in elementary school age. One hundred fifty-five fourth graders were tested on 20 recently developed paper-and-pencil items tapping four different components of scientific reasoning (understanding the nature of science, understanding theories, designing experiments, and interpreting data). As confirmed by Rasch analyses, the scientific reasoning items formed a reliable scale. Model comparisons differentiated scientific reasoning as a separate construct from measures of intelligence and reading skills and revealed discriminant validity. Furthermore, we explored the relationship between scientific reasoning and the postulated prerequisites inhibitory control, spatial abilities and problem-solving skills. As shown by correlation and regression analyses, beside general cognitive abilities (intelligence, reading skills) problem-solving skills and spatial abilities predicted performance in scientific reasoning items and thus contributed to explaining individual differences in elementary school children's scientific reasoning competencies.     

Construction play and cognitive skills associated with the development of mathematical abilities in 7-year-old children

Construction play is thought to develop logico-mathematical skills, however the underlying mechanisms have not been defined. In order to fill this gap, this study looks at the relationship between Lego construction ability, cognitive abilities and mathematical performance in 7-year-old, Year 2 primary school children (N = 66). While studies have focused on the relationship between mathematics performance and verbal memory, there are limited studies focussing on visuospatial memory. We tested both visuospatial and verbal working memory and short term memory, as well as non-verbal intelligence. Mathematical performance was measured through the WIAT-II numerical operations, and the word reading subtest was used as a control variable. We used a Lego construction task paradigm based on four task variables found to systematically increase construction task difficulty. The results suggest that Lego construction ability is positively related to mathematics performance, and visuospatial memory fully mediates this relationship. Future work of an intervention study using Lego construction training to develop visuospatial memory, which in turn may improve mathematics performance, is suggested.     

The role of task design and argumentation in cognitive development during peer interaction: The case of proportional reasoning

This paper examines task design that affords deep changes in mathematical thinking in the context of peer interaction. We describe a study in which 60 low-level high-school students solved a proportional reasoning task, the “blocks” task as individuals and/or in dyadic interaction. We show that we could tailor the design of the task in order to create a cognitive conflict among dyads, notwithstanding the strategies used by the students. We show that students' proportional reasoning strategies did not improve as a result of discussion even when guided by an experimenter dedicated at reaching consensus; however the introduction of a hypothesis testing device and the guidance of the experimenter to accommodate divergent views led peers to impressive conceptual change in their discussion and in an individual post-test. Examination of one case of dyadic interaction shows that beyond the value of given characteristics of individuals or of tasks, the process of argumentation that takes place between the peers explains the subsequent gains of the individuals. The conditions under which conceptual change was attained challenge theoretical views on cognitive development and social interactions.     

The development of proportional reasoning and the ratio concept Part I — Differentiation of stages

Two related problems have to be solved before we can have a clearer picture of cognitive development:

1. Is development hierarchical, leading to higher-order systems controlling lower-order subsytems?
2. If so, what are the mechanisms involved in a process of development?

These two problems will be studied here taking as example a concept which finds its achievement only in late adolesence: the concept of proportion. Part I of this article is devoted to the first problem. It will bear on the experiment which was undertaken and the analysis of results leading to a differentiation of stages of development. These stages will be illustrated by typical protocols of each stage. Part II will be devoted to problem solving strategies at each stage, and finally to a second order analysis leading to an attempt to interpret the passage from one stage to the next in terms of increasing equilibration or adaptive restructuring of the strategies put to use to solve problems.     

Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

Motor development and cognitive development may be fundamentally interrelated. Contrary to popular notions that motor development begins and ends early, whereas cognitive development begins and ends later, both motor and cognitive development display equally protracted developmental timetables. When cognitive development is perturbed, as in a neurodevelopmental disorder, motor development is often adversely affected. While it has long been known that the striatum functions as part of a circuit with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, it is suggested here that the same is true for the cerebellum and that the cerebellum may be important for cognitive as well as motor functions. Like prefrontal cortex, the cerebellum reaches maturity late. Many cognitive tasks that require prefrontal cortex also require the cerebellum. To make these points, evidence is summarized of the close co-activation of the neocerebellum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in functional neuroimaging, of similarities in the cognitive sequelae of damage to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the neocerebellum, of motor deficits in "cognitive" developmental disorders, and of abnormalities in the cerebellum and in prefrontal cortex in the same developmental disorders.     

Evaluating the impact of reflecting on curriculum-embedded skill development: the experience of science undergraduates

ABSTRACT

Meaningful reflection on their learning and skill development is often lacking in the experience of undergraduates. Many students do not recognise the curriculum-embedded development of transferable skills and lack the ability to articulate such skills. This mixed-methods study sought to investigate whether engaging students in reflection would increase their ability to recognise and articulate their skill development. Sixty science undergraduates from Monash University completed a voluntary semester-long program recording and reflecting on course-related skill development, supported by email prompts and group discussions. The impact of students’ involvement was evaluated through pre- and post-participation surveys, reflections and group discussions. Most students were challenged by the unfamiliarity of thinking beyond knowledge attainment in order to identify and reflect on skill-related experiences. However, they recognised a range of benefits from doing so, including an improved ability to recognise their skill development, strengths and weaknesses and to articulate their skills in readiness for seeking employment. They also valued previously unappreciated learning tasks and gained motivation to improve skill deficits and seek out opportunities to improve their employability. Based on this study, recommendations are made regarding best practice for implementing skills reflection in the curriculum.     

关于婴幼儿体育锻炼与智力开发的探究

谈到体质,我们很自然的就会把它与体育锻炼联系在一起。运动生理学研究说明,经常参加体育活动可以促进机体各部分和各个系统的发育。本文深入分析了婴幼儿体育锻炼的内容与方法,体育锻炼与智力开发的关系和影响以及体育锻炼应注意的事项等问题。     

Family history,self‐perceptions,attitudes and cognitive abilities are associated with early adolescent reading skills

This study evaluated a model of reading skills among early adolescents (N=174). Measures of family history, achievement, cognitive processes and self‐perceptions of abilities were obtained. Significant relationships were found between family history and children's single‐word reading skills, spelling, reading comprehension, orthographic processing and children's perceived reading competence. While children with poor reading skills were five times more likely to come from a family with a history of reading difficulties, this measure did not account for additional variance in reading performance after other variables were included. Phonological, orthographic, rapid sequencing and children's perceived reading competence made significant independent contributions towards reading and spelling outcomes. Reading comprehension was explained by orthographic processing, nonverbal ability, children's attitudes towards reading and word identification. Thus, knowledge of family history and children's attitudes and perceptions towards reading provides important additional information when evaluating reading skills among a normative sample of early adolescents.     

Conditional logic abilities on the four-card problem: Assessment of behavioral and reasoning performances

The present study assessed the behavioral and the reasoning performances of 507 school and university students on the four logical principles of logical detachment, particular conversion, particular inversion, and particular contraposition. An adapted version of Wason's four-card problem was administered to all students in paper-and-pencil format and in group settings. Students were asked to respond to the logical questions and to justify their answers. Nine logical reasoning categories were identified. The results of behavioral and reasoning performances were compared across grade levels. Results indicated that many students who responded behaviorally correctly to the logical questions, provided incorrect reasoning justifications. The percentages of students who considered a conditional statement as hypothetical increased with age. No sex differences on the behavioral and the reasoning performances were reported.     

Gender differences in cognitive abilities of opposite-sex and same-sex twin pairs with reading disabilty

In order to compare the pattern of gender differences for cognitive measures in opposite-sex twin pairs to that in independent samples of twins from same-sex pairs, psychometric test data were obtained from four research-identified samples of children: (1) 96 pairs of opposite-sex fraternal twins in which at least one member of each pair is reading disabled; (2) 62 pairs of opposite-sex fraternal twins with no history of reading problems; (3) 167 males and 155 females from same-sex identical and same-sex fraternal twin pairs in which at least one member of each pair is reading disabled; and (4) a comparison sample of 126 males and 132 females from same-sex twin pairs with no history of reading problems. Results of multivariate analyses indicate that gender differences for cognitive measures are similar in twin pairs with and without reading disabilities. Moreover, a highly similar pattern of gender differences occurs for opposite-sex twin pairs who shared both prenatal and early postnatal influences and for independent samples of children from different families.     

The development of proportional reasoning and the ratio concept Part II—problem-structure at successive stages; problem-solving strategies and the mechanism of adaptive restructuring

The Orange Juice Experiment, consisting of 23 items of varying degrees of complexity bearing on the concept of ratio, was given to subjects between 6 and 16 years. Stages had been differentiated through statistical analysis and described in Part I of this paper. These stages had been interpreted in terms of the Genevan scale of development. In Part II, given here, the strategies applied at each stage are first analysed, and a second order analysis made to determine the possible processes for passing from one stage to another. A process of adaptive restructuring finally evolved, bearing on two periods of development—construction of the ratio concept, and construction of the Common Denominator algorithm.     

The effects of instructional intervention on improving proportional,probabilistic, and correlational reasoning skills among undergraduate education majors

The main purpose of this study was to test the effect of instruction to improve the reasoning skills of undergraduates majoring in the field of education. The results of this investigation demonstrate the lack of proficiency in formal reasoning by undergraduate education majors in the areas of proportional, probabilistic, and correlational reasoning. However, after receiving three specifically planned interventions, students in the experimental group showed improvement in all three areas of reasoning (p ≤ 0.05). Also, it was noted that students with science and/or math in their backgrounds performed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) better in all three areas of reasoning on both pre‐ and post‐tests than did students with no science or math in their backgrounds. This study is among the first to show that background knowledge obtained from college level science and math courses correlates with better reasoning skills. Data from this study also demonstrated that interventions focusing on probability and proportionality improved the correlational reasoning skills of students. The results of this investigation indicate that deficiencies in reasoning abilities in the areas of proportionality, probability, and correlational reasoning can be successfully addressed even with limited classroom intervention. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 37: 981–995, 2000     

Clinical importance of parent ratings of everyday cognitive abilities in children with learning and attention problems

This study addressed two issues: first, whether parental reports contribute information over and above a standardized psychometric assessment, and second, whether parental reports of everyday cognitive functioning might be useful in distinguishing between children with reading disabilities (RD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and combined ADHD + RD. Parent-reported information on 159 children with learning or attention problems was obtained using a questionnaire called the Parent Ratings of Everyday Cognitive and Academic Abilities (PRECAA). Psychometric information used for comparison included the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery-Revised, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form, the Vocabulary and Block Design subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition, and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration. The PRECAA was found to be sensitive to group differences between children with RD and children with ADHD and combined ADHD + RD. Its inclusion resulted in a significant increase in the number of children correctly classified compared to the use of psychometric measures alone. The PRECAA correctly classified more children (66%) than did the standard psychometric measures (50%). In fact, a very high percentage of children with ADHD (81%) were correctly classified using the PRECAA. These findings suggest that the PRECAA may be a useful aid to clinicians in the identification of children with learning and attention problems.     

Long-term development of learning activity: Motivational,cognitive, and social interaction

Recent research on school learning has dealt only with cognitive aspects of the student activity. However, in typical learning and performance situations, the student is expected to cope with complex social and emotional challenges. We developed a theoretical model that describes typical patterns of coping strategies that students use in school situations. The dominating tendency of some students in school situations is task orientation. Such students are oriented to interpret and fulfill the demands of learning tasks. In contrast, other students are sensitive to the threat of failure and show ego-oriented coping strategies. A third group of students relies on social-dependence coping. Orientation tendencies originate in classroom situations, but are then continuously reproduced and reinforced in similar teaching interactions. A multimethod approach was used to test this theoretical model. Longitudinal case studies have demonstrated the cumulation and reinforcement processes of coping tendencies in teaching interactions. Classroom interaction studies have provided evidence of the strong interaction between cognitive processes and socioemotional orientation. Finally, intervention studies have shown that, to improve the use of cognitive strategies, coping strategies also have to be changed.     

Development of reasoning associated with pictographs: Representing, interpreting, and predicting

A developmental model involving four response levels is proposed concerning how students arrange pictures to represent data in a pictograph, how they interpret these pictographs, and how they make predictions based on these pictographs. The model is exemplified by responses from three related interview-based studies. In Study 1, examples of each response level are provided from 48 preparatory- to tenth-grade students. Students from higher grades were more likely to respond at higher levels. In Study 2, 22 students were interviewed longitudinally after a three-year interval; many improved in response level over time, although a few responded at lower levels. In Study 3, 20 third-grade students were interviewed and then prompted with conflicting responses of other students on video; many improved their initial responses to higher levels after exposure to the conflicting prompts. Associations among levels of representing, interpreting, and predicting were explored. Educational implications are discussed concerning reasonable expectations of students and suggestions to develop these skills in students at different grades. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The effects of part-task and whole-task instructional approaches on acquisition and transfer of a complex cognitive skill

This study was designed to investigate the effects of two instructional approaches (whole-task versus part-task) and two levels of learner prior knowledge (lower versus higher) on learner acquisition and transfer of a complex cognitive skill. Participants were 51 undergraduate pre-service teachers. In the part-task condition, a complex skill (preparing a grade book using Excel) was decomposed into a series of smaller tasks, each of which was demonstrated and practiced separately. In the whole-task condition, which was based on the 4C/ID-model (van Merriënboer 1997), learners were exposed to the entire complex skill from the beginning of the instruction and were required to practice performing a series of whole tasks throughout the unit. Results indicated that the whole-task group performed significantly better than the part-task group on a skill acquisition test and a transfer test. Possible reasons for these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children's cognitive performance and school adjustment

This study examined how a range of physical punishment measures, ranging from mild corporal punishment to physical abuse, are associated with cognitive performance, school engagement, and peer isolation over a 3- year span among 658 children initially observed between the ages of 8 and 14. Physical punishment was captured in three groups: mild corporal punishment, harsh corporal punishment, and physical abuse, and both caregiver- and child-reported punishment measures were considered. After accounting for socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, only Ninitial exposure to physical abuse was significantly associated with declines in cognitive performance. However, all forms of physical punishment were associated with declines in school engagement, and harsh corporal punishment was associated with increased peer isolation. Our findings were relatively consistent regardless of whether physical punishment was reported by the child or caregiver. Overall, our findings suggest that the prevention of physical abuse may enhance children's cognitive performance, but that alone may not be sufficient to ensure children are engaged and well-adjusted in school.