Interactions of Metacognition With Motivation and Affect in Self-Regulated Learning: The MASRL Model

Metacognition, motivation, and affect are components of self-regulated learning (SRL) that interact. The “metacognitive and affective model of self-regulated learning” (the MASRL model) distinguishes two levels of functioning in SRL, namely, the Person level and the Task × Person level. At the Person level interactions between trait-like characteristics such as cognitive ability, metacognitive knowledge and skills, self-concept, perceptions of control, attitudes, emotions, and motivation in the form of expectancy-value beliefs and achievement goal orientations are hypothesized. These person characteristics guide top-down self-regulation. At the Task × Person level, that is, the level at which SRL events take place, metacognitive experiences, such as feeling of difficulty, and online affective states play a major role in task motivation and bottom-up self-regulation. Reciprocal relations between the two levels of functioning in SRL are also posited. The implications of the MASRL model for research and theory are discussed.     

Effects of organizational pictures and modality as a feedback strategy on learner comprehension and satisfaction

One of the strongest instructional interventions documented in educational literature is the use of feedback to influence learning outcomes. However, there is lack of empirical research specifically pertaining to the use of multimedia in the feedback message. The purpose of this research was to test whether organizational pictures and modality as a feedback strategy had an effect on learner comprehension and satisfaction. The research design was a 2 Multimedia (Picture Present vs. Picture Absent) × 2 Modality (Narration vs. On-screen Text) × Trial (Trial 1 vs. Trial 2) with Multimedia and Modality serving as between-subject conditions and Trial serving as a repeated measure. One-hundred fifteen university students participated in the study. Findings show statistically significant increases in comprehension scores from Trial 1 to Trial 2 assessments for all four treatment conditions. Learners in the Picture present conditions were statistically more satisfied with the learning experience. Additionally, we used eye-tracking to verify the extent to which the pictures were used in the feedback message. A discussion and recommendations for future research and feedback design are provided.     

Exploring Person Fit with an Approach Based on Multilevel Logistic Regression

The idea that test scores may not be valid representations of what students know, can do, and should learn next is well known. Person fit provides an important aspect of validity evidence. Person fit analyses at the individual student level are not typically conducted and person fit information is not communicated to educational stakeholders. In this study, we focus on a promising method for detecting and conveying person fit for large-scale educational assessments. This method uses multilevel logistic regression (MLR) to model the slopes of the person response functions, a potential source of person misfit for IRT models. We apply the method to a representative sample of students who took the writing section of the SAT (N = 19,341). The findings suggest that the MLR approach is useful for providing supplemental evidence of model–data fit in large-scale educational test settings. MLR can be useful for detecting general misfit at global and individual levels. However, as with other model–data fit indices, the MLR approach is limited in providing information regarding only some types of person misfit.     

The Cognitive Process of Chinese Abacus Arithmetic

Based on the literature review about abacus arithmetic, this study proposes a model of the cognitive process of Chinese abacus arithmetic. This model describes three methods for solving abacus arithmetic problems: retrieval method, procedure method, and mental arithmetic method and three external factors that affect the choice of those methods: level of expertise, level of difficulty, and type of operation. The experiment in the study invited 36 participants including 12 vocational high-school students as junior experts, 12 ordinary high-school students as novices, and 12 bank clerks as senior experts to validate the 3 × 3 × 2 experiment. The results of this study indicate that (1) the retrieval method, procedure method, and mental arithmetic method are the three main calculation methods of abacus arithmetic, each of them having some variations; (2) experts tend to use the retrieval method, while novices tend to use the mental arithmetic method; (3) the retrieval method and mental arithmetic method are applied more for simple operations and addition problems, while the procedure method is applied more for complicated operations and subtraction problems.     

Designing Reading Comprehension Assessments for Reading Interventions: How a Theoretically Motivated Assessment Can Serve as an Outcome Measure

When designing a reading intervention, researchers and educators face a number of challenges related to the focus, intensity, and duration of the intervention. In this paper, we argue there is another fundamental challenge—the nature of the reading outcome measures used to evaluate the intervention. Many interventions fail to demonstrate significant improvements on standardized measures of reading comprehension. Although there are a number of reasons to explain this phenomenon, an important one to consider is misalignment between the nature of the outcome assessment and the targets of the intervention. In this study, we present data on three theoretically driven summative reading assessments that were developed in consultation with a research and evaluation team conducting an intervention study. The reading intervention, Reading Apprenticeship, involved instructing teachers to use disciplinary strategies in three domains: literature, history, and science. Factor analyses and other psychometric analyses on data from over 12,000 high school students revealed the assessments had adequate reliability, moderate correlations with state reading test scores and measures of background knowledge, a large general reading factor, and some preliminary evidence for separate, smaller factors specific to each form. In this paper, we describe the empirical work that motivated the assessments, the aims of the intervention, and the process used to develop the new assessments. Implications for intervention and assessment are discussed.     

Effects of “Like Type” Sex Pairings between Applicants–Principals and Type of Focal Position Considered at the Screening Stage of the Selection Process

This study addresses the screening decisions for a national random sample of high school principals as viewed from the attraction-similarity theory of interpersonal perceptions. Independent variables are the sex of principals, sex of applicants, and the type of focal positions sought by hypothetical job applicants (teacher or counselor). Dependent variables are principals’ assessments of job candidates’ skills on specific job related criteria and the perceived probability of extending job candidates an interview opportunity. Principals’ assessments of hypothetical applicants were cast into a 2×2×2 completely crossed factorial design and were analyzed through a stepdown analysis of variance procedure. By approaching selection as a process, these results fit within the tenets as suggested by the attraction-similarity paradigm. Similar sex pairings between principals and applicants were more likely to be extended interview offers than dissimilar sex pairings regardless of the focal position under consideration.This research was supported in part by the University of California Educational Research Center (UCERC). Contents of this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of UCERC.     

Mapping students' interest in a new domain: Connecting prior knowledge,interest, and self-efficacy with interesting tasks and a lasting desire to reengage

How students experience educational environments and the interconnections between their readiness, task experiences and their long-term desire to reengage with course content are critical questions for educators. Research postgraduate students (n = 310) at a research-intensive university in Hong Kong, engaging in a 24-h introductory teaching course, participated in this study. Learner readiness for the course was assessed as prior Domain interest, self-efficacy, and knowledge. Subsequently, students completed four formative assessments, reported their on-task interest in seven strategically chosen tasks and end-of-course Course and Domain interest. Longitudinal-SEM tested interconnections between readiness components, Task, Course and Domain interest. Initial self-efficacy beliefs for teaching predicted early Task interest, while Domain interest was a predictor of Task interest in explicitly practical task experiences. Strong interconnections between Task interest across the study were evident. Individual written and social discussion tasks presented strong contributions to future Course/Domain interest. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Assessment myths and current fads: A rejoinder to a position paper on nonbiased assessment

The Region 9 Task Group position paper on unbiased assessment of culturally different children provided the impetus for describing a number of fallacies pertaining to psychological tests and the assessment procedure for educational purposes. Among the fallacies identified were that child advocacy necessitates the renunciation of standardized assessments, that diagnoses are either harmful to children or useless, that the use of norms in testing is detrimental to a child's well-being, that standardized tests are devoid of value since they fail to help teachers formulate appropriate teaching methodologies, and that the multidsciplinary assessment approach is necessarily the most efficacious. Although it has become highly fashionable to mount sweeping criticisms of standardized tests, a responsible position requires a more careful analysis of the assumptions underlying the use and misuse of these instruments.     

The (limited) use of local-level assessment system: A case study of the Head Start National Reporting System and on-going child assessments in a local program

Using concepts from the evaluation literature, this case study describes the instrumental, conceptual, and political influence of the Head Start National Reporting System (NRS) and on-going child assessments in a local Head Start program. This study found that a local program intentionally aimed to limit the influence of the NRS. The NRS validated the program's performance for the program administrators and local governing bodies. It had no impact on teaching and learning, and was not used to make decisions to guide local program improvement. On-going child assessments were more widely valued within the local program. These assessments had some impact on teachers’ individualization of instruction for children, and managers made some effort to use program-level findings to inform program development. Similar to the NRS, the on-going child assessments were also used to provide accountability with local governing bodies. Based on these findings, implications for the use of local-level systems in early childhood programs are discussed.     

Instructional Sensitivity as a Psychometric Property of Assessments

Standards-based reform, as codified by the No Child Left Behind Act, relies on the ability of assessments to accurately reflect the learning that takes place in U.S. classrooms. However, this property of assessments—their instructional sensitivity—is rarely, if ever, investigated by test developers, states, or researchers. In this paper, the literature on the psychometric property of instructional sensitivity is reviewed. Three categories of instructional sensitivity measures are identified—those relying on item or test scores only, those relying on item or test scores and teacher reports of instruction, and strictly judgmental methods. Each method identified in the literature is discussed alongside the evidence for its utility. Finally, recommendations are made as to the proper role of instructional sensitivity in the evaluation of assessments used under standards-based reform.     

"互文"视野下的《孤独者》的想象空间

《孤独者》是一篇内涵很丰富的小说,在"互文"的研读视野中,文本内三个人物的"孤独"命运形成互文式循环;魏连殳与鲁迅其他小说的人物构成了互文式"孤独者"谱系;《孤独者》对"魏晋名士"、"零余者"这两个前文本进行了互文利用;文本中关于"孩子"话题的讨论与鲁迅"孩童观"发生了互文引证。在共时和历时的网络体系中,在此文本与他文本、文本和文化语境的相互指涉和映射下,建构起多维度的语言形象、文本语义结构、互文符号范式。     

新旧文化交替的悲剧典型———关于19 世纪俄罗斯文学中的“多余人”形象

本文总结了学术界多年来有关19 世纪俄罗斯文学中的“多余人”形象的众多争议, 并从19 世纪的文化视野出发, 以辩证的态度对“多余人”的典型性问题、悲剧原因、历史功过等进行了多层次多方面的探讨, 阐明“多余人”是俄罗斯新旧文化交替的悲剧典型。     

Cross-cultural examination of test anxiety among US and Singapore students on the Test Anxiety Scale for Elementary Students (TAS-E)

In the present study, the similarity of the factor structure of the Test Anxiety Scale for Elementary Students (TAS-E) and cultural and gender differences in test anxiety were examined in a sample of 1322 US and Singapore elementary students. The similarity of the factor structure of the TAS-E, a measure of test anxiety, was examined to determine whether the same test score interpretation could be made across culture and gender. Coefficient of congruence and salient variable similarity index values indicated that the pairs of matched factors (Physiological Hyperarousal, Social Concerns, Task Irrelevant Behaviour, Worry and Total Test Anxiety factors) of the TAS-E were similar across culture and gender. Results of a 2?×?2 ANOVA and 2?×?2 MANOVA with follow-up ANOVAs revealed that Singapore males scored higher than US males and US females scored higher than Singapore females on the TAS-E Total Test Anxiety scale and the Physiological Hyperarousal subscale. Singapore males also scored higher than US males on the TAS-E Worry subscale. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Standardized Testing in College Admissions: Observations and Reflections

Reflecting upon the experience serving on the University of California's Standardized Testing Task Force, and drawing lessons learned, I argue that the COVID-19 pandemic has merely served to accelerate the trend of US higher education institutions moving away from current standardized tests. New educational assessments will continue to be produced. There will be strong calls for the making of completely different assessments than currently available. Educational measurement as field has much to offer and to learn.     

日本蛇郎故事文本的六种形态

本将所收集到的日本国内的蛇郎故事本,分为“神婚与祖先之神”、“英雄的蛇子”、“人神之间的池中之物”、“农夫的女婿”、“原生态的淫”、“殉情之蛇”六种形态,并从民俗、化和学的角度对每一形态加以阐释。     

Rhetoric and reality in science performance assessments: An update

This article addresses the rhetoric of performance assessment with research on important claims about science performance assessments. We found the following: (a) Concepts and terminology used to refer to performance assessments often were not consistent within and across researchers, educators, and policy-makers. (b) Performance assessments are highly sensitive not only to the tasks and the occasions sampled, but also to the method (e.g., hands-on, computer simulation) used to measure performance. (c) Performance assessments do not necessarily tap higher-order thinking, especially when they are poorly designed. (d) Performance assessments are expensive to develop and use: technology is needed for developing these assessments in an efficient way. (e) Performance assessments do not necessarily have the expected positive impact on teachers' teaching and students' understanding. (f) If teachers are to use performance assessments in their classrooms, they need professional development to help them construct the necessary knowledge and skills. This article attempts to address some of these realities by presenting a conceptual framework that might guide the development and the evaluation of performance assessments, as well as steps that might be taken to create a performance assessment technology and develop teacher inservice programs. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Examining the influence of international large-scale assessments on national education policies

This paper examines whether, to what extent, and how international large-scale assessments (ILSAs) have influenced education policy-making at the national level. Based on an exploratory review of the research and policy literature on ILSAs and two surveys administered to educational policy experts, researchers, policymakers, and educators, our research found that ILSAs, with their multiple and ambiguous uses, increasingly function as solutions in search for the right problem – that is, they appear to be used as tools to legitimize educational reforms. The survey results pointed to a growing perception among stakeholders that ILSAs are having an effect on national educational policies, with 38% of respondents stating that ILSAs were generally misused in national policy contexts. However, while the ILSA literature indicates that these assessments are having some influence, there is little evidence that any positive or negative causal relationship exists between ILSA participation and the implementation of education reforms. Perhaps the most significant change associated with the use of ILSAs in the literature reviewed is the way in which new conditions for educational comparison have been made possible at the national, regional, and global levels.     

The use of scoring rubrics: Reliability, validity and educational consequences

Several benefits of using scoring rubrics in performance assessments have been proposed, such as increased consistency of scoring, the possibility to facilitate valid judgment of complex competencies, and promotion of learning. This paper investigates whether evidence for these claims can be found in the research literature. Several databases were searched for empirical research on rubrics, resulting in a total of 75 studies relevant for this review. Conclusions are that: (1) the reliable scoring of performance assessments can be enhanced by the use of rubrics, especially if they are analytic, topic-specific, and complemented with exemplars and/or rater training; (2) rubrics do not facilitate valid judgment of performance assessments per se. However, valid assessment could be facilitated by using a more comprehensive framework of validity when validating the rubric; (3) rubrics seem to have the potential of promoting learning and/or improve instruction. The main reason for this potential lies in the fact that rubrics make expectations and criteria explicit, which also facilitates feedback and self-assessment.     

Procrastination,conscientiousness, anxiety,and goals: Exploring the measurement and correlates of procrastination among school‐aged children

We explore the reliability and validity of a self‐report measure of procrastination and conscientiousness designed for use with third‐ to fifth‐grade students. The responses of 120 students are compared with teacher and parent ratings of the student. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were also used to examine the structure of the scale. Procrastination and conscientiousness are highly correlated (inversely); evidence suggests that procrastination and conscientiousness are aspects of the same construct. Procrastination and conscientiousness are correlated with the Physiological Anxiety subscale of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and with the Task (Mastery) and Avoidance (Task Aversiveness) subscales of Skaalvik's (1997) Goal Orientation Scales. Both theoretical implications and implications for interventions are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.