Results of two national surveys of leadership personnel needs in deaf education

Seventy university teacher preparation programs and 100 instructional programs serving at least 120 deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed separately to (a) determine the demand for additional doctoral-level leadership personnel in deaf education, (b) obtain guidance for university leadership preparation programs in deaf education for the purpose of recruiting leadership personnel, and (c) identify experiences that would be relevant to the positions for which prospective leadership personnel are preparing. Data representing 54% of teacher preparation programs and 65% of instructional programs serving deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States evince the need for additional doctoral-level personnel for faculty positions in university teacher preparation programs in deaf education, as well as the need for leadership positions in instructional programs serving deaf and hard of hearing children. Data also provide direction for leadership preparation programs in addressing the leadership personnel needs of the field.     

Enrollment trends in deaf education teacher preparation programs, 1973-2009

The number of deaf education teacher preparation programs and the number of program graduates were tabulated from reference issues of the American Annals of the Deaf beginning in 1973 and progressing every third year through 2009. Programs and graduates reached their highest levels from the mid-1970s through mid-1980s. In 2006 and 2009, only about one fourth as many students were majoring in deaf education in relation to the general U.S. college population as in 1973, 1976, and 1979. Yet because the population of children identified as deaf and hard of hearing has also declined, the ratio of program graduates to deaf children has stayed relatively balanced for the past 20 years. Current challenges faced by teacher preparation programs include increases in interpreter preparation programs and programs for teaching American Sign Language, as well as the changing nature of the role of teacher of the deaf.     

Weaving Curriculum Connections in International Baccalaureate (IB) Schools

In this article we discuss how school leaders address challenges when implementing innovative international education curricula, namely International Baccalaureate (IB) programs. Specifically, we frame challenges in curriculum implementation of and transition between IB programs from a “disconnection” perspective. We have often noticed when innovative programs are parceled together without preparation and thrust at great speed at schools, they become disconnected. The hasty implementation of multiple IB programs simultaneously at a school also causes disconnection. Drawing on extensive interview data from principals, mid-level leaders, and teachers in five IB schools adopting multiple IB programs in Asia, we detail curriculum disconnection facing IB schools and how school leaders, including teacher leaders, address such challenges by weaving various disconnected points, namely instrumental, intellectual, cultural, professional, and communicative disconnections. Based on findings from the multisite case study, we argue that school leaders in the case of IB schools adopt a range of leadership strategies to weave disconnection points. We reframe the leadership strategies as two aspects of distributed leadership: distributed instructional leadership and teacher leadership. In conclusion, we suggest that a central facet for successful leadership of IB schools that adopt multiple IB programs is about finding, focusing, and facilitating ways to address disconnections in curriculum implementation of and transition between different IB programs.     

Deaf education in China: history, current issues, and emerging deaf voices

An overview is provided of (a) deaf education in China, (b) views of deaf Chinese, and (c) recent empowering international collaborations. China's national policy focuses on oral/aural education and hearing rehabilitation. However, everyday practice in schools for deaf children includes various forms of Chinese Sign Language. Early childhood education focuses on speech and hearing. Elementary and secondary school curricula reflect low expectations for deaf students and lack the same academic content provided to hearing students. There are limited higher education opportunities. There are no support services such as note takers or interpreters for mainstreamed students. There are no deaf teacher preparation or interpreter training programs. Jobs are few; the vast majority of deaf adults are unemployed. Deaf people interviewed for the article describe their needs, their dreams, and the changes they are witnessing, which result in part from recent empowering international collaborations.     

Welcome to the real world: reflections on teaching and administration

The author compares his former position as an assistant professor in a program preparing future teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students with his present position as an administrator of a public school program serving these students. He maintains that in some ways, teacher training programs in deafness and the public school settings hiring these graduates are separate worlds. The emphasis in teacher training programs appears to be on preparing graduates to work with deaf students in self-contained or residential school settings even though most teaching positions are with hard of hearing students mainstreamed in public schools. Other important areas, such as collaboration with general education teachers, litigation, parental relationships, and individualized education programs, seem to be overlooked by teacher training programs. The author employs the mockingbird metaphor from the novel To Kill A Mockingbird (Lee, 1960) to highlight differences between teacher training programs and public school settings, while making recommendations for strengthening connections between the two.     

Suggestions for preparing itinerant teachers: a qualitative analysis

Increasing numbers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing receive educational services in general education classrooms. This placement shift has altered the way teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing work, causing an increase in the number of itinerant teachers. As placement trends for students who are deaf or hard of hearing and teachers' job responsibilities have changed, the field of deaf education has only slightly modified professional standards for licensed teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Most teacher preparation programs continue training preservice teachers to work in self-contained classrooms, leaving itinerant teachers feeling underprepared. Interviews were conducted with 25 experienced itinerant teachers to determine which content and experiences should be included in preparation programs for preservice teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing who plan to become itinerant teachers. Results indicate that changes in course work and practical are necessary to best prepare these teachers.     

Integration of computers and related technologies into deaf education teacher preparation programs

The study examined how computer technology is used, modeled, and taught in programs that prepare future teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Data were collected through two self-reported survey instruments sent to participants from two different groups: (a) deaf education faculty (n = 233) and (b) administrators of programs serving students who are deaf or hard of hearing (n = 100). Among the faculty who responded to the survey, 99% said they used computers and printers for instruction during class, 84% said they used VCRs for instruction during class, and 56% said they used video cameras for instruction during class. The information that was reported on how technology was being used for instruction and how its use was being taught to students in deaf education teacher preparation programs indicates that the need persists for integration of technology into these programs. A need likewise continues for improved instructional strategies relative to computers and technology.     

The challenge to make schools safe: Preparing education personnel to curb student aggression and violence

Abstract

The incidence of aggression and violence in schools is approaching epidemic proportions. Unfortunately, few teacher education programs offer coursework designed to prepare school personnel to face the mounting challenge of student aggression. Drawing upon the accumulated literature, changes are discussed in the content of teacher education programs that would prepare teachers to effectively address student violence. Assertions are made that colleges of education must assume leadership roles in redefining professional boundaries to prepare all school personnel to combat student aggression. Lastly, arguments are presented for strengthening university and public school collaboration to promote programs designed to curb the rising tide of student aggression and violence.     

Preparing today's teachers of the deaf and hard of hearing to work with tomorrow's students: a statewide needs assessment

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is explicit in its mandate that students who receive special education services have opportunities to be involved in and progress in the general education curriculum. Teachers providing instruction to students who are deaf or hard of hearing are expected to comply with this federal mandate. To determine if teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing throughout the state of Georgia felt adequately prepared to educate this population, a statewide needs assessment survey was conducted. Questionnaires were reviewed from 110 experienced teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. More that half of the teachers who responded judged their teacher preparation program to be appropriate. Specific suggestions for modifications to teacher preparation programs are provided.     

Reflections on Neuroscience in Teacher Education

The majority of teacher preparation programs do not address neuroscience in their curricula. This is curious, as learning occurs in the brain in context and teachers fundamentally foster and facilitate learning. On the one hand, merging neuroscience knowledge into teacher training programs is fraught with challenges, such as reconciling how scientific evidence is viewed and used in education, overcoming neuromyths, acknowledging the lack of direct connection between laboratory findings and classroom practices, and coordinating across different levels of analysis in neuroscience and educational practice. On the other hand, there are marked benefits to such a merger, such as deepening pedagogical content knowledge from multiple perspectives; understanding neuroplasticity and its educational implications; recognizing the power of the environment to affect neurobiology, learning, and development; and contributing to engaged, reflective practice and informed inquiry in teaching. Particularly in terms of learning equity for students and the development of a learning education culture in teacher education programs, the benefits of including neuroscience knowledge in teacher training would seem to outweigh the challenges.     

Involving families in training early childhood educators: Developing a framework for family centeredness

Abstract

More early childhood programs are including young children with disabilities, thereby creating inclusive environments. In order to adequately prepare personnel for working in these inclusive settings and because of the major focus on family involvement, teacher preparation programs have developed competencies related to family centered practices. One of the most valuable methods for assisting students in developing a family‐centered philosophy is to involve families in the training process. Families of children with disabilities already have much experience in dealing with the many diverse services provided to young children such as, medical staff, social service agencies, specialists (i.e., physical therapists, occupational therapists), early interventionists and teachers and therefore, could provide extensive learning opportunities for students especially from a parents’ perspective. While there are many advantages for involving family members in training activities, there are also some challenges. The purpose of this article is to discuss the importance of involving families in early childhood teacher preparation programs, different strategies for including them, and the benefits and challenges of partnering with them. © 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.     

In search of a new, linguistically and culturally sensitive paradigm in deaf education

For more than a century, educators have recognized the low academic achievement of deaf children in America. Teacher training programs in deaf education historically have emphasized medical-pathological views of deaf people and deaf education rather than appropriate pedagogies that draw upon and build on deaf students' linguistic and cultural knowledge. A recent and growing interest in educating deaf children bilingually acknowledges the value of American Sign Language and English in the classroom. The authors address the dire need for prospective teachers and teacher educators to rethink their views of deaf people and, in doing so, rethink the teaching methodologies in deaf education.     

How physical education teacher education majors should be prepared to teach students with hearing loss: a national needs assessment

A national needs assessment survey is described that gathered information on current practices in physical education in both center-based schools for the deaf and mainstream programs serving deaf and hard of hearing students, grades K-12. The manner in which deaf and hard of hearing students are being served in physical education programs, the depth and breadth of curricula, and the credentials needed to teach are described. The study compares similarities and differences among physical education programs in center-based deaf institutions and mainstream schools. In summary, the study identifies areas of concentration needed in curriculum, and methods of teaching appropriate for student teacher candidates. This information has value for physical education programs that are considering revising their curricula to prepare teacher candidates who wish to work with deaf students.     

Supporting new science teachers in pursuing socially just science education

This forum explores contradictions that arose within the partnership between Teach for America (TFA) and a university teacher education program. TFA is an alternate route teacher preparation program that places individuals into K-12 classrooms in low-income school districts after participating in an intense summer training program and provides them with ongoing support. This forum is a conversation about the challenges we faced as new science teachers in the TFA program and in the Peace Corps program. We both entered the teaching field with science degrees and very little formal education in science education. In these programs we worked in a community very different from the one we had experienced as students. These experiences allow us to address many of the issues that were discussed in the original paper, namely teaching in an unfamiliar community amid challenges that many teachers face in the first few years of teaching. We consider how these challenges may be amplified for teachers who come to teaching through an alternate route and may not have as much pedagogical training as a more traditional teacher education program provides. The forum expands on the ideas presented in the original paper to consider the importance of perspectives on socially just science education. There is often a disconnect between what is taught in teacher education programs and what teachers actually experience in urban classrooms and this can be amplified when the training received through alternate route provides a different framework as well. This forum urges universities and alternate route programs to continue to find ways to authentically partner using practical strategies that bring together the philosophies and goals of all stakeholders in order to better prepare teachers to partner with their students to achieve their science learning goals.     

A rationale and recommendations for sexuality education in schools for students who are deaf

The authors evaluate and advocate the need for comprehensive sexuality education that meets the unique needs of youth who are deaf or hard of hearing, while calling for the expansion of teacher preparation in this critical area. Effective comprehensive sexuality education is designed to prepare young people to become more comfortable with, and informed about, their sexuality. Teachers and parents are key adults in this process. However, the responsibility for preparing teachers to handle sexuality education lies with both the postsecondary teacher preparation program and the administrative team at the individual school; their willingness to provide comprehensive training, current resources, and continued support are crucial to the success of any comprehensive sexuality program. In the individual school, effective guidance of youth who are deaf or hard of hearing in making appropriate decisions about their sexuality is built upon a team that includes not only school staff, but also parents and deaf adults in the community.     

Deaf Students and Higher Education in the United Kingdom

Abstract

In the United Kingdom, 233 higher education institutions were surveyed in 1988 and 1989 providing 166 returns. The survey sought information on equal opportunities policies, provision of technical support, the availability of support personnel and interpreters, funding arrangements, and the numbers of deaf students within higher education (HE). With a few notable exceptions, the returns showed a generally poor level of services available to deaf students, an ignorance of the required support needs and a low representation of deaf people within HE. The need for positive action seemed to be least recognized within teacher training colleges. The study also highlighted the absence of any monitoring of deaf or disabled students within HE. Several suggestions are made on how policies and practices in institutions could be changed to widen access to this group of students.     

Exploring the Structure and Benefits of an Integrated Yearlong Dual Certification Student Teaching Internship

Abstract

Many teacher preparation programs offering dual certification have engaged in program redesign to establish greater integration between general education and special education. This article presents findings from an exploratory case study that examined the perspectives of former preservice teacher candidates and school personnel regarding an integrated yearlong dual certification internship. Findings indicated research participants (a) placed value on the breadth and authenticity of the experience; (b) built deep relationships with students and staff that contributed to building confidence; and (c) felt the structure and impact of the model yielded positive outcomes for both the school and for preservice teacher candidates. Implications for practice include suggestions for how teacher preparation programs might move toward integrated models of dual certification teacher preparation and explore the importance of clinically rich partnerships that benefit both preservice teacher candidates and field sites.     

An analysis of teacher preparation in deaf education: programs approved by the Council on Education of the Deaf

An analysis of the most recent self-study reports of the 46 teacher preparation programs approved by the Council on Education of the Deaf yielded data on program demographics, curriculum and content, faculty, practicum, students, and graduates. Only 4 of the 46 teacher preparation programs had been established since 1980. Thirty-nine offered comprehensive teacher preparation, five offered auditory/oral, and two offered preparation in bilingual-bicultural education. Thirty-three offered two or more specializations, of which elementary (96%) and secondary (52%) were the most common. Students' practicum experiences often did not coincide with employment after graduation. The study reported a median of 2 full-time faculty per program, who taught 75% of the courses. Although adjuncts taught 25% of the courses in the deaf education program, they made up 75% of the faculty. The study's results indicate extreme diversity among the programs and great breadth and complexity within them. Compared with a 1986 survey, the number and level of the programs appears to be declining while the number of specializations and program length are increasing.     

A Review of Issues in Deaf Education Under Nigeria's 6-3-3-4 Education System

This article examines issues affecting the education of deaf people under Nigeria's 6-3-3-4 system of education. The system was introduced in 1976 and serves all categories of learners in Nigeria, irrespective of disability. The broad aim of education under the system is to provide all Nigerian learners a wide variety of educational and vocational opportunities to ensure the optimum development of their potential. Evidence indicates that the implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system in Nigerian schools, including schools for the deaf, remains unsatisfactory. A plethora of problems running the gamut from inadequate personnel training programs, lack of facilities, failure of inclusion programs, to limited vocational preparation opportunities, inadequate funding of services, and absence of a legislation supporting the implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system are identified as the major factors militating against the effective implementation of the system in Nigerian schools, including schools for the deaf. The implications for improvements in these areas to achieve a more meaningful implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system are discussed.