EDUCATIONAL TUITION‐WAIVER POLICIES: A SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF INSTITUTIONAL IMPACT IN VIRGINIA

Abstract

In the last decade, a majority of states has developed legislation or centralized policy directives which encourage the participation of older adults in institutions of higher education through tuition‐reduction or tuition‐waiver. However, very little research has been conducted to assess their impact on participation and program development. This paper is intended to analyze the awareness and impact of tuition‐waiver policies among older adults and institutions of higher education in the state of Virginia. In addition, this paper is intended to provide an expository framework for the synthesis of secondary data sources which address state policy issues in gerontology and higher education.

Results from the analysis indicate a high level of awareness among administrators at the institutional and state level in higher education and among state legislators, while somewhat less awareness is evident among older adults. In terms of impact, results indicate that older adult participation remains extremely low, and the priority of cost in participation decisions is not well understood. The actual financial burden on institutions is still relatively small; however, with no tuition or state reimbursed funds, the incentives for program development remain insufficient.

Several additional policy and research questions follow from the analysis. Questions must be raised concerning who is benefitting from the legislation and who should be benefitting, what kinds of incentives are necessary for institutions to develop programs, and what role the state should play in facilitating program development. Additionally, a re‐evaluation of tuition‐waiver policies versus other kinds of financial incentives is recommended.     

Social factors and adult learners’ motivations in re‐entering higher education

While there is less doubt that adult learners are motivated by different reasons to re‐attend school, it is important to note that, other than psychological factors, social factors are also important in shaping the participation decision. Although researchers have attempted to include social factors in participation models, there is not a conclusive relationship between socioeconomic background and motivation for participation. This study attempts to clarify the linkage between different social factors and adult motivations in re‐entering school to acquire a university degree. By regressing motivations onto three sets of social variables, we found that family role and social position have significant impact in affecting some of the motivations for re‐entering school. These results confirm that adult motivations to learn are embedded within the social lives of adults.     

Editorial

The purpose of this research was to determine whether or not a hypothesized Institutional orientation existed as a a learner orientation distinct from those previously identified by Houle (Goal, Activity, Learning) and Burgess (Religious). And if it exists, to what extent it played a significant role in determining the participatory behaviour of adult learners in three different adult education institutions (local church, community college, Red Cross). The data obtained from the 30‐item composite instrument (Reasons for participation in learning activities) were submitted to a one‐way ANOVA, the Scheffe‘t‐test and chi‐square analysis. The results indicated that the Institutional orientation does exist as a distinct adult learner orientation. Chi‐square analysis of the data indicated that the church‐sponsored group was significantly different from the other two groups in the degree to which the Institutional orientation of the adults affected participation, and in the reported degree of commitment to the sponsoring institution, as well as the reported frequency of attendance at educational activities sponsored by the institution. It was concluded that the Institutional orientation does play a significant role among some adult participants. Further, that sociological aspects of the study of adult participation need to be considered if we are to understand fully all of the dynamics at work that precipitate and sustain participation in voluntary educational activities.     

Toward a sociology of participation in adult education programmes

Membership in voluntary associations and participation in adult education programmes have long been recognized by researchers in the fields of adult education and sociology as closely related forms of participatory behaviour. This inquiry realizes the potential of this relationship for the study of participation in adult education programmes through the reformulation of a sociological construct called personal influence. It is argued that personal influence in the form of face‐to‐face contact with primary and secondary influentials is at the heart of recruitment strategies targeted at adults, is often an important component of an adult's decision to participate in formally organized learning activities, and may play a critical role in retention and instruction of the adult learner. Secondary analysis of research on voluntary associations, social movement organizations, and adult education programmes, together with data on two populations of adult learners from ar ongoing large scale study of Adult Basic Education participants, underscores the importance of personal influence for explaining the entire range of participatory action and interaction.     

Why do adults learn? Developing a motivational typology across 12 European countries

Participation in adult education is today generally considered an individual responsibility. However, participation is the result of a complex bounded agency between individuals, educational institutions and regulating governments. This paper explores the motives of 12,000 European adult learners in formal adult education in 12 European countries. Analysis shows consistent patterns comparable to welfare state typologies. Further exploration demonstrates that motives to participate in adult education courses can be interpreted in relation to the labour market, education and social policy in the country of participation.     

Literacy and the New Workplace: the fit between employment‐oriented literacy and Aboriginal language‐use

In recent years there has been much comment on the value‐laden and particularly political nature of language and literacy and the manner in which literacy is embedded in particular socio‐cultural systems. It is argued here that the non‐neutrality of literacy is evident in the contemporary positioning of adult language and literacy instruction within the rhetoric of current employment‐related concerns. These concerns privilege a particular vision of the workplace and workforce and these ideas have become embedded in competency‐based language and literacy schemata. In this paper, assumptions regarding the nature of workers’ participation in the ‘new’ workplace in such schemata are identified. In particular, the degree to which the vision of participation, as measured by specified language and literacy competence for the workplace, is likely to be shared by Aboriginal Australians in both remote and settled Australia is considered. Related factors impinging on adult Aboriginal acquisition and demonstrations of language and literacy competence in this context are discussed.     

AGING AND HIGHER EDUCATION: PROSPECTS FOR INTERVENTION

Consistently low participation in higher education programs by older adults suggests the need for theory‐derived research efforts to uncover barriers to educational activity in later life. In the present paper it is argued that an understanding of adulthood educational participation be developed according to a criterion of environmental and situationally dependent factors rather than solely to one of inexorable and cross‐situational biophysical decline. Specific environmental and organismic factors that may relate to chronically low rates of educational participation by older learners are pinpointed and described and suggestions are made for examining and rearranging the ecological context of life‐span education in order to stimulate greater educational involvement in the later years. Changes in cross‐age attitudes and behaviors that may result from an influx of older adult learners into college and university classrooms are also considered in light of recent research evidence on inter‐generational contact.     

The social,economic and political contexts of adults' participation in undergraduate programmes: a state-level analysis

This study examined the extent to which socially structured factors impact adults' participation in undergraduate programmes in the USA. In a collective sense, this study started with an assumption that adults' decision to participate in educational programmes does not only rely on individual psychological and their adjacent environmental attributes, but it is also, in part, influenced by socially structured contexts surrounding them. Using the state as a unit of analysis, this study analysed the relationships between socio-demographic, economic, educational and political factors and the variation of adults' participation in the undergraduate programmes. Variables from both educational and socio-demographic factors had stronger relationships with adults' participation. Some variables that states can control through policy-related actions were meaningfully associated with adults' participation. Through this sociological understanding of adult participation in higher education, this study will supplement the lack of attention to macro-level perspectives in participation research in adult education.     

Continuing education and the universities in Britain: The political context

The starting point for this paper is the current ambition in Norway and other countries to increase the rate of entry into higher education of mature students. Intransigency amongst suppliers of higher education on entry standards means that any such increase must involve a greater preparedness amongst adults to pursue access to higher education via participation in higher secondary education. The purpose of this paper is to improve our understanding of the preparedness of adults, or lack of it, to pursue access to higher education through participation in the examination‐based higher secondary education (HSE) for adults. In doing so we must confront the general underutilization of theory in research into participation in adult education coupled to the failure by researcher and theoretician alike to acknowledge the heterogeneity of the field. The article develops a conceptual framework of perspectives on participation in HSE for adults within which the core perspectives are derived from the prevailing theoretical approach to understanding participation in adult education, viz. the motivation‐barriers paradigm. We argue, however, that these perspectives are ultimately only of intermediary status, and that a conceptual framework that does not include their major causal antecedents would be overly reductionist. The framework contains therefore perspectives of a sociological character that not only shed light on the development of the necessary motivation for participation in HSE for adults, but that also seek to account for the structural forces that hinder participation.     

Modelling the ‘learning divide’: Predicting participation in adult learning and future learning intentions 2002 to 2010

This article presents multivariate analyses of the characteristics associated with both participation in adult education and the intention to participate in future learning. It uses questionnaire data from more than 47,000 individuals collected by the National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE) over the course of nine annual surveys administered between 2002 and 2010. It reviews both recent and historical policy in the area of ‘lifelong learning’ and considers the findings of previous empirical research in the area. The results of the current study support previous findings suggesting that participation in ‘later’ learning is most strongly associated with positive ‘learning dispositions’ and extended participation in initial, full‐time education. While other socio‐economic factors were related to participation in adult learning, the explanatory power of these variables was much weaker. Despite dramatic changes in online technologies and a ‘massification’ of Internet access over the period studied, there was no evidence that information and communications technologies were either increasing or widening access to participation.     

Lifelong learning and the low‐skilled

This article is a combined result of a three years research project on low‐skilled learners’ experiences as participants of various kinds of adult training and education in Denmark, and the findings of a three years research consortium on workplace learning, summing up and generalizing our various findings as to how low‐skilled adults function in relation to participation in training and education activities, how they feel about it, what is important to them, and consequently what works in practice in relation to this very important but often neglected group of adult learners.     

Class strategies and stealth policies in adult education

Class strategies, how individual members of class fractions tactically gain advantage in fields including education, have been used to analyse schooling and initial post‐compulsory education. In this paper, class strategies are applied to adult education in considering participation across social classes. Using empirical data from a biographical study of adult education I show how different notions of ‘positionality’ are employed in three cases. Uniquely, I consider ruling class strategies in adult education and why the consideration of a ruling class might alter our perspective on differences between working‐ and middle‐class learners. Finally, I apply these perspectives to the policy arena and discuss how pernicious class strategies might actually be enhanced by new ‘stealth’ policies in adult education.     

试论成人的经验与成人学习模式

受教育哲学、教育心理学和成人教育学等理论的影响，经验在成人学习中倍受重视。为此，基于成人经验的自我导向学习模式、问题学习模式、参与学习模式、情境化学习模式以及合作学习模式也在成人学习中受到推崇。然而，在经验的性质、经验的状态以及经验的适用范围上仍存在诸多争议和质疑，需要进一步研究。     

A model for enhancing social communication and interaction in everyday activities for primary school children with ASD

Children with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder may find the social aspects of learning particularly challenging because of the traits of diffculty with social communication and interaction. This paper evaluates the impact of an interactive model designed to support social communication and interaction for twelve students with ASD, who attend three international primary schools in Hong Kong. Using an exploratory mixed‐methods approach, the study investigates the children's participation and engagement when a Social Communication and Interaction model is in operation. The model is built around the concept of mediation and the use of tools, which were intended to encourage children with ASD to be engaged in high‐level participation activities. Attention is drawn towards the children's growth of self‐confidence, a reduction of adult support and the children's increased participation with others in the activity sessions.     

Learning trajectories: travelling towards a learning society? 1

This paper uses the results of a large‐scale study of patterns of participation in post‐compulsory education and training over the past 50 years to identify some of the social determinants of adult participation in formal learning experiences. The patterns of participation are presented in the form of predictable lifelong ‘trajectories’, and the predictability of these patterns of participation is as important a finding as their determinants. The key predictors themselves can be discerned quite early in an individuals life since they comprise the period in which the person was born, their place of birth and subsequent migration patterns, their gender, their family background, their experience of initial schooling, and the interactions between them. The patterns of participation and their changes over time are used to reinforce doubts about the wisdom of seeing a Learning Society as simply a worthwhile future goal, towards the implementation of which current policy is directed, and towards which the UK is travelling in linear fashion by apparently increasing opportunities for, while removing barriers to, lifelong participation.

     

Beyond educational attainment: The importance of skills and lifelong learning for social outcomes. Evidence for Europe from PIAAC

Empirical evidence suggests that educational attainment nurtures people's social outcomes and promotes active participation in society and stability. However, it is unclear to what extent other types of human capital also correlate with social outcomes. Hence, we explored the opportunity offered by the PIAAC survey through its provision of information on educational attainment, observed individual key skills proficiency, and participation in adult education and training (adult lifelong learning). We therefore studied the association between these human capital variables and social outcomes, and more specifically interpersonal trust and participation in volunteering activities. Results revealed that these social outcomes were affected not only by the formal qualification obtained, determined by the education variable, but also throughout the life‐cycle. Indeed, education and training when undertaken during adult life have a significant impact, especially on volunteering. The fact that the skill proficiency also plays a significant role is extremely relevant, as skills are more likely to change over the life‐cycle, either in a positive or negative way. Whilst the formal education received is constant after exiting the educational system, skills reflect competences more accurately: first, because those with the same level of education may have different skill levels because of differences in the quality of education or ability; second, because skills can vary over time. For example, they may increase with work experience or informal education, or decrease as a result of depreciation and ageing. These findings suggest that social outcomes are prone to be affected by many factors other than formal education, suggesting that policy makers can implement recommendations even after formal education has been completed.     

A strategic view of parent participation

Partnership and parental participation are terms which have featured frequently in discussions of educational matters in recent years. Their exact meaning and implications, however, are problematic. This paper seeks to move towards a strategic understanding of parental participation and in doing this addresses several themes: the concept of participation; contrasting perspectives on parental participation; the development of ‘welfare state’ rationality; the growth and significance of collective consumption and with this the development of the consumer‐citizen; and strategies towards consumer weakness. Tackling consumer weakness, it is argued, requires radically changing (or re‐casting) the relationship between consumer‐citizens and producers. It is suggested that education is a sphere which is particularly fruitful for the investigation and development of such a policy.

The themes discussed in the paper suggest an alternative approach or framework for education and participation is required and this is briefly outlined. The paper concludes with proposals for promoting collective parental involvement and influence; in particular, a scheme for a national representative body for parents, which is both government‐funded and accountable to local associations of parents, is put forward.     

ADULT UNDERGRADUATE ACADEMIC PARTICIPATION

The purpose of the present study was to explore the relationship between 10 independent variables and undergraduate academic participation within a weekend college environment. The four demographic variables were age, educational attainment, job type and work setting. The six variables contained in Cross' Chain of Response Model (self‐evaluation of ability, attitudes towards education, goals and expectancy, life transitions, opportunities and barriers, and information) were also investigated. Three levels of participation were identified low, medium, and high. An ex post facto design was employed in the present study. Data were gathered through the administration of a survey instrument to 220 adult students enrolled in a weekend‐degree program. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess instrument sub‐test internal consistency. Internal consistency coefficients ranged between .63 to .88. A statistically significant relationship was found under discriminant function analysis with alpha = .05 between participation and all variables except job type and work setting. Under chi‐square analysis, there was found no relationship between job type or work setting and paticipation. There were no differences found under univariate anaylsis of variance with alpha = .05 between the remaining eight variables and level of participation except self‐evaluation of ability where high participators exhibited greater self‐confidence in their ability than low participators.     

全球成人教育的参与机会研究

通过对全球成人教育领域中相关数据的整理分析,揭示全球成人教育参与机会仍不均等的状况,分析了参与机会不均等的原因,并对成人教育的参与机会进行展望,以期对推进成人教育参与机会的公平有一定的借鉴意义。     

‘This is the beginning of my life educationally’: older (50+ years) working class adults’ participation in higher education in Scotland,through the lens of critical educational gerontology

This paper reports on original research where the primary objective was to critically explore the learning experiences of older (50+ years) working class adults in the context of a new university. Semi‐structured interviews with 10 older learners engaged in a range of study in a new university in the west of Scotland were utilised. This methodology was adopted to bring their voices to the fore, in recognition that these have been under‐represented in educational research to date. A main outcome of the study was that theorising of widening participation practice and pedagogy as it relates to older learners may be significantly developed from insights afforded by critical educational gerontology (CEG) (older adult education) and its central concern with empowerment of marginalised older adults. It is concluded that CEG’s theoretical perspectives and pedagogic practices—critical gerogogy—may inform and shape more responsive widening participation practices that aim to support under‐represented groups. This is particularly evident for older working class students whose formative educational experiences were predominantly characterised by severely limited choice and opportunity. CEG has significant implications for widening participation practice in offering a distinctive, holistic educational philosophy and creative pedagogical approach.