Social foundations of lifelong learning: a Habermasian perspective

ABSTRACT

The idea of learning rooted in behavioural psychology has become dominant in the field of teaching and learning for several decades. Even though it has been widely used in formal education it is inadequate for informing lifelong learning policies and plans. In this paper, first I critique the psychological foundation of learning and in the second part, drawing on Habermasian conceptualisation of three structural components of the lifeworld (culture, society, and personality), I conceptualise the three components as the social foundations of learning: learning as cultural reproduction, learning as social integration and learning as socialisation. In the context of the UN’s declaration of ‘lifelong learning’ as one of the Sustainable Development Goals, this paper will be useful for developing policies to address challenges faced by individual countries at cultural, societal and individual levels.     

Towards process-oriented teaching for self-directed lifelong learning: a multidimensional perspective

Self-directed learning is often embraced as an important educational goal, although for quite different reasons, from the improvement of school learning to the critical assessment of the claims of democracy. Most reasons imply that self-direction is important in learning throughout life. Therefore process-oriented teaching, which aims to foster self-directed lifelong learning, needs a broad and multidimensional theoretical basis. The important role of experiences in the social and cultural context, prior knowledge, and the emotional aspects of learning are highlighted, and related to self-directed learning in life. Important aspects of process-oriented teaching are summarized in four principles. A multidimensional approach to learning also provides a conceptual basis to teachers’ learning. Developing a process-oriented approach in teaching presents a major challenge for teachers as well as for schools.     

演进与质变：从终身教育到终身学刁

终身学习是在新的时代背景下对终身教育的继承和超越。从终身教育到终身学习的转变是一种质的飞跃，终身学习是对时代发展要求的应答，它实现了整个教育的重心转移，保证了终身教育制度的有效实施，更符合学习化社会的要求。     

Easing access for lifelong learners: a comparison of European models for university lifelong learning

Easing access to higher education (HE) for those engaging in lifelong learning has been a common policy objective across the European Union since the late 1990s. To reach this goal, the transition between vocational and academic routes must be simplified, but European countries are at different developmental stages. This article maps the development in Denmark, Finland, Germany and England using a case study approach deploying data triangulation from a national and institutional perspective. It explores the extent/commonality of structural factors for easing access for students engaging in lifelong learning. The cases are at widely different stages, but the following factors were considered essential in all countries for opening universities: the establishment of transition paths from secondary education and working life into HE and links between HE, businesses and adult education from a national perspective and the recognition of all forms of learning, the flexibilization of study formats and the design of a curriculum that suits all from an institutional perspective.     

Interaction for lifelong learning

The term ‘lifelong’, as applied to education or learning, has been in circulation for more than a quarter of a century. It has played an important role in policy discussions, as well as in studies of the sociology and economics of education. The relationship of this term to the rapidly changing world of information and educational technologies, and to the various conceptions of interaction that are central to these technologies, however, has been considered much less frequently. This paper seeks to shed light on the relationship between lifelong learning and the interactive technologies that have become associated specifically with the Semantic Web. It begins by presenting a fictional narrative to illustrate a lifelong learning scenario in the context of the services and resources that the Semantic Web will be capable of providing. It then proceeds to isolate a number of general characteristics of lifelong learning as they are manifest in this scenario and in recent literature on the subject. The paper then explores how emergent, interactive technologies of the Semantic Web have the general potential to address many of the characteristics of lifelong learning, and hold out the promise of satisfying a wide variety of lifelong learning needs. It will conclude by considering some of the outstanding challenges presented by lifelong learning contexts, and mention some of the limitations of advanced technologies used to address these needs.     

Towards a lifelong learning target for 2015

This paper begins by reviewing the progress which has been made over the past decade in the aim to reach targets such as Education for All and other Millennium Development Goals, especially as far as adult education and gender equality are concerned. While there have been achievements in some countries, universal primary education is not even likely to be reached by 2015. Giving a few examples of recent studies, this paper considers the measurement of lifelong learning and its effects on a country’s economy and its people’s health and well-being. While it is of course much easier to collect data about formal education than about non-formal and informal learning, the author stresses that the latter need to be included more in new strategies alongside formal education. The paper concludes by highlighting ten essential components for a lifelong learning target fit for purpose in a climate-changing society.     

Socio-demographic and practice-oriented factors related to proficiency in problem solving: a lifelong learning perspective

This article explores the relative importance of different socio-demographic and practice-oriented factors that are related to proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments (PSTREs) and by extension may be related to complex problem solving (CPS). The empirical analysis focuses on the proficiency measurements of PSTRE made available by the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, which is relevant for gaining insight on some of the factors related to CPS. The purpose was to examine the relationship between the broad information processing experience that individuals gather in different contexts over the lifespan, and the chances to develop problem-solving skills that adults receive in different socio-demographic profiles. Results reveal that socio-demographic factors such as age, education and immigration status as well as practice-oriented factors such as ICT use and reading practice at and outside work are strongly related to proficiency.     

Formal,nonformal and informal education: A holistic perspective on lifelong learning

This article presents a conceptual framework for understanding the interrelationships among formal, nonformal and informal education. It provides a typology of modes of education across the life span, from childhood to old age. The nonformal education mode is the focus of the article as examples of programs for differing ages, sexes, social classes and ethnic groups are discussed. The third section of the article raises questions regarding the relationship between nonformal education for individual and social change within and across cultural and socio-economic groups. It also discusses the relationship between nonformal and formal education relative to their respective scope and outcomes.The author argues that educational resources must be viewed as interacting modes of emphasis rather than as discrete entities. Hence, all individuals are engaged in learning experiences at all times, from planned, compulsory and intentional to unplanned, voluntary and incidental. It is also argued that nonformal education may be more strongly associated with socio-economic, sex and ethno-religious groups than is formal education. Because of these strong socio-economic and cultural ties, the utility of nonformal education for social, as opposed to individual, change is often restricted. The value of nonformal, as opposed to formal, education for access to the opportunity structure for low socio-economic status populations is also questioned because of the greater legitimacy typically associated with schooling.

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Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel legt einen konzeptuellen Rahmen für das Verständnis der Wechselbeziehungen zwischen formaler, nicht-formaler und informaler Erziehung vor. Er bietet eine Typologie von Erziehungsweisen, die sich über das ganze Leben erstrecken, von der Kindheit bis zum späten Alter. Im Zentrum des Artikels steht der nicht-formale Erziehungsmodus; Beispiele von Programmen für verschiedene Altersstufen, Geschlechter, soziale Klassen und ethnische Gruppen werden gegeben. Der dritte Teil wirft Fragen der Beziehungen zwischen nicht-formaler Erziehung für individuellen und sozialen Wandel innerhalb kultureller und sozio-ökonomischer Gruppen sowie gruppen-übergreifend auf. Ferner wird das Verhältnis nicht-formaler zu formaler Erziehung in bezug auf ihren jeweiligen Umfang und ihre Ergebnisse besprochen.Der Verfasser führt aus, daß Bildungsressourcen als interaktive Schwerpunktsetzung und nicht als getrennte Ganzheiten anzusehen sind. Somit machen alle Menschen jederzeit ihre Lernerfahrungen, von geplantem, pflichtmäßigem und absichtlichem Lernen bis zu ungeplantem, freiwilligem und zufälligem. Weiterhin wird hervorgehoben, daß nicht-formale Erziehung wohl stärker als formale mit sozio-ökonomischen, ethnisch-religiösen und Geschlechtsgruppen assoziiert ist. Wegen dieser festen sozio-ökonomischen und kulturellen Bindungen ist die Nützlichkeit nicht-formaler Erziehung für sozialen, im Gegensatz zu individuellem, Wandel oft begrenzt. Fraglich erscheint auch der Wert nicht-formaler, imGegensatz zu formaler, Erziehung für den Zugang von Gruppen mit niedrigem sozio-ökonomischen Status zu der Chancenstruktur, weil der Schule allgemein größere Legitimität zugeschrieben wird.

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Résumé Cet article présente un cadre conceptuel pour une meilleure compréhension des interrelations de l'éducation formelle, non formelle et diffuse. Il présente une typologie des differents modes d'éducation qui se succèdent au cours d'une existence, depuis l'enfance jusqu'à la vieillesse. Le mode d'éducation non formelle constitue le thème central de cet article où sont discutés des exemples de programmes en fonction de l'âge, du sexe, de la classe sociale et du groupe ethnique. La troisième partie de l'article soulève des questions sur les relations entre l'éducation non formelle de l'individu et le changement social à l'intérieur des groupes culturels et socio-économiques, mais aussi entre ces groupes. Il traite également de la relation entre l'éducation non formelle et l'éducation formelle en ce qui regarde leur champs d'action respectifs et leur résultats.L'auteur soutient que les resources éducatives doivent être considérées comme des facteurs de mise en valeur réciproque plutôt que comme des discrètes entités. Par suite, tous les individus sont engagés à tout moment dans des expériences d'apprentissage, qu'elles soient concertées, obligatoires et délibérées ou bien involontaires, imprévues et fortuites. L'auteur ajoute que l'éducation non formelle pourrait être plus fortement associée aux groupes socio-économiques, sexuels et ethno-religieux que l'éducation formelle. Ces liens culturels et socio-économiques puissants restreignent souvent, l'efficacité de l'éducation non formelle dans le changement social, contrairement à ce qui se passe pour l'individu. La valeur de l'éducation non formelle — à la différence de l'éducation formelle — comme voie d'accès aux structures de rattrapage pour les populations d'un statut socio-économique défavorisé, est aussi contestée par suite de la légitimité supérieure typiquement associée à la scolarité.

     

Sustainable assessment for lifelong learning

This paper explores the alignment of assessment practices in universities and lifelong learning as a key process and outcome for expansive student development. It outlines Boud’s approach to assessment, operationalises this to analyse practices in two contrasting national contexts: the sociology departments of the Midlands University in the UK and Nam Du University in Vietnam, and reframes this framework as a guide to improving practices and better-supporting lifelong learning. The paper thus contributes to recent debates about sustainable assessment and how to change assessment to better support students for lifelong learning in different countries. The findings suggest that although more elements were found at Midlands University than Nam Du University, assessment in both cases was an imperfect realisation of this framework. Nonetheless, the paper argues that the framework can offer guidance for changes to align assessment practices with lifelong learning, but to do this it should be adapted to the education context and also expanded to include explicit social commitments to others for expansive lifelong learning.     

Equity and lifelong learning: lessons from workplace learning in Scottish SMEs

Workplace learning is identified by UK and Scottish governments as an important means of achieving social mobility, and therefore producing a more equal society. However, there appears to be a patchwork of provision and funding arrangements, making it difficult for employers and employees to identify suitable routes. Analysis of large scale survey data at European and Scottish levels shows that existing inequalities are further entrenched by differential access to and participation in workplace learning, where those with existing high levels of qualification have far greater opportunities. This paper draws on data drawn from an EU Sixth Framework funded study of lifelong learning, focusing in particular on case studies of six Scottish SMEs which are used to identify some of the reasons underlying inequalities in access to workplace learning. Whilst all of the SMEs had a positive approach to employee development, they differed in the type of work they undertook and the composition of the workforce. Employees in knowledge intensive organisations were immersed in a culture where on‐going learning was an expected part of working life, and was driven by both employers’ and employees’ expectations. By way of contrast, more traditional manufacturing and training organisations had a more restricted approach to learning, encouraging employees to undertake courses which would give them the skills to do their jobs more effectively, but with less focus on their wider growth and development. All firms treated lifelong learning with some degree of scepticism, ultimately prioritising company profitability over individual employee development and seeing the two as sometimes at variance. Given the Scottish government’s desire to promote the demand side of skill development, the barriers posed by employers’ attitudes need to be addressed, particularly in relation to lower‐skilled workers in manufacturing firms, who might have less intrinsic motivation, but are also less likely to receive encouragement and support from their employer.     

The potential for lifelong learning in dementia: a post-humanist exploration

Numbers of people with dementia are projected to grow to 682 million globally by 2050. However, despite this escalation, the widely-promoted positive vision of lifelong learning throughout all ages does not extend to people with dementia. Constructions of learning for those with dementia are predominantly limited to the management of symptoms. The focus on retrieval of memory does not seem to allow for the emergence of the learner as a ‘new beginner’ or as a teacher. This paper focuses on a recent study, Beyond Words to challenge dominant assumptions about dementia and learning. Using a post-humanist theoretical framework, this longitudinal qualitative study explores the benefits of community music for those who face problems communicating with words: such as those with dementias, autism, learning difficulties and brain damage. Rather than characterising them as ‘non-verbal’ it positions them as ‘post-verbal’ and able to communicate in different ways. Moving away from discussions of ‘selfhood’, the paper uses a post-humanist approach to explore an agentic assemblage including one person with dementia from the study and also explores how another participant teaches important lessons about materiality and time. It demonstrates that learning and ‘new beginnings’ and ‘becomings’ can and do take place at advanced stages of dementia, challenging the assumption that dementia is a wasteland for learning. It also shows how people with dementia have much to teach researchers about living and learning.     

Getting closer: workplace guidance for lifelong learning

The purposes of this article are twofold. First, it considers the policy links between guidance and lifelong learning, highlighting in particular the implications of findings from a recent study by the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD). Secondly, it critically compares two approaches to workplace guidance about education and training, drawing upon evaluations of various initiatives organized by trade unions and employers in Denmark and the UK. These evaluations are based on qualitative data collected from in‐depth interviews with those responsible for organizing and giving the guidance, as well as those who received it. Five interviews were conducted with recipients of guidance in each country, either face‐to‐face or by telephone, using a semi‐structured interview schedule. The conclusions suggest some issues that need to be addressed by guidance practitioners and policy makers, including employers and trade unions.     

Action learning guided by Tao for lifelong learning

Information Technology brings about rapid changes in working environment, quickly rendering skills and knowledge gained in formal learning institutions obsolete. Even as they prepare students for their first career, institutions also need to equip students with skills necessary for lifelong learning. The Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore has accordingly structured its curricula into Academic Studies and General Studies where the former focuses on core subjects (broad based knowledge-specific studies), and the latter on general knowledge (multi-disciplines catering to various interests for lifelong benefits). A 12-week course, ‘Introduction to Tao for Effective Action Learning’ which focuses on learning processes was developed and has been taught by the author, for undergraduates at NTU since July 2001. The course materials were derived from the author's Ph.D. thesis ‘The Tao of Action Learning’ (Sam, 2000). This paper explains the nature of the action learning programme at NTU and includes one account from participant students.     

Preparation for lifelong learning using ePortfolios

Rapid technological change, increasing globalization and a changing world of employment with multiple roles during one's professional life are necessitating a change from knowledge to learning societies. Full participation requires lifelong learning skills, meaning the ability to solve problems, work both independently and in a team, communicate effectively in all formats and on all levels, and self-direct one's learning and professional development needs. Universities need to take responsibility in preparing students for lifelong learning. While engineering and science degrees traditionally do not emphasize the importance of lifelong learning skills new programmes of study are now being introduced, often using electronic portfolios to support engagement with learning objectives and reflection. This article describes an electronic portfolio initiative that is targeted at engineering and computer science students. The initiative aims to create awareness among students on the nature and importance of lifelong learning skills, to facilitate the development of such skills and to assist students in showcasing their competence regarding these skills. Interviews with industry representatives regarding the characteristics of a lifelong learner and the values of constructing and presenting portfolios were conducted and have resulted in strong support for the electronic portfolio initiative. The article provides background on lifelong learning and electronic portfolios, outlines the design of the initiative and then focuses on feedback from industry representatives.     

Strategies for developing a sustainable learning society: An analysis of lifelong learning in Thailand

Today’s world may be characterised as the dawn of the new millennium of the learning society, where knowledge is considered as a country’s most valued asset and primary source of power. In the increasingly intense competition among international communities, Thailand has been respected for advancing the concept of transforming communities, cities and regions into learning societies engaged in a sustainable development strategy which promotes the continual learning of individuals – the smallest unit of society. The learning society approach aims to balance economic, social, natural and environmental aspects and resources of society; and is transforming the Thai people into knowledge citizens and knowledge workers. The underlying legislation carries stipulations concerning lifelong learning, educational enhancement and global competitiveness aimed towards developing appropriate manpower to move the society towards sustainable happiness as compared and contrasted with maintaining the “status quo”. This article portrays the current situation of lifelong learning and education in Thailand; analyses and synthesises five best-practice learning society case studies and proposes guidelines for developing a sustainable learning society.     

终身学习视阈下开放大学教育服务供给模式改革策略

开放大学要实现服务全民终身学习的办学目标,就应正视自身存在的问题,直面时代的挑战,利用已有的优势,为学习者提供优质的教育服务。终身学习背景下,开放大学教育服务模式应该在供给主体上转向多元化、供给方式上趋向网络化、供给内容上面向个性化、供给单元上走向碎片化、供给关系上倾向需求化,以满足学习者的学习需求。为适应新时代学习者的学习需求,开放大学在教育服务供给模式方面需要改革,主要策略包括:搭建终身学习平台以整合教育服务资源,在明确教育服务供给模式改革方向的基础上构建教育服务供给体系,保障教育服务供给质量,并建立基于"需求侧"的教育服务供给评价机制。