An Experiment in Developing Critical Thinking in Children

A three week experiment was conducted comparing the academic achievement of pupils in five classrooms (N = 108) taught in small cooperative groups against that of pupils from five classes (N = 109) taught in the traditional whole-class approach. Special achievement tests were prepared for each grade level, two through six. These tests were constructed with items requiring responses at low and high levels of cognitive functioning. Pupils in grades two, four, and six from small-group classrooms excelled on high level items as predicted. Pupils in the fifth grade produced superior answers on questions requiring original contributions. Achievement scores of both groups did not differ on items measuring low level cognitive functioning.     

Effects of Prereading Story Mapping on Elementary Readers' Comprehension

Abstract

In this study, the effects of two teacher-directed prereading instructional procedures (directed reading activity [DRA] vs. story grammar/structured overview story mapping) on literal and inferential reading comprehension were compared. Sixty third-grade and 60 fifth-grade students were randomly assigned to treatment groups, and data were analyzed within grade levels by an analysis of variance. The prereading modified story mapping procedure resulted in 14% better inferential comprehension (p < .0005) and 7% better literal comprehension than did DRA at the third-grade level. Statistically significant differences between groups were not found at the fifth-grade level. Implications for practice and theory are suggested.     

A comparison of three Native American groups and a Caucasian group on the Minnesota Percepto-Diagnostic Test-Revised

This study compared the performance of three different Native American groups and a Caucasian group on the Minnesota Percepto-Diagnostic Test-Revised and the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. The tests were administered to 40 Navajo, 40 Papago, 40 Hopi, and 40 Caucasian children. All of the children were in regular classrooms and none had been referred for school psychological services. The results, using a one-way analysis of variance, indicated significant differences among the four groups on the MPD-R rotation scores and two of the three configuration scores. When age was controlled, these MPD-R scores remained significant. There were no significant differences among the four groups for achievement. It was also found that the MPD-R was correlated significantly with some of the achievement variables.     

Identification of educationally at-risk children during the kindergarten year: A four-year follow-up study of group test performance

Group test performance of children identified during the kindergarten year as educationally high, moderate, and low risk was investigated by following a group of 472 children from grades one through four. End of kindergarten predictive measures were the Kindergarten Evaluation of Learning Potential, the Bender-Gestalt Test, and the Slosson Intelligence Test; follow-up measures were group achievement tests administered in April of each school year. Significant differences in achievement performance were found between the high and low risk groups. Significant correlations were found between risk group designation and achievement performance in the first four grades. (No significant differences in group test performance were found for risk groups or individuals between grade levels.) Findings support the predictive validity of the present screening procedures for group test performance through grade four. Further, the findings show that students appear to perform consistently at the same level year to year in a regular class instructional program.     

Academic self-concept and achievement in Polish primary schools: cross-lagged modelling and gender-specific effects

This study reports relationships between general academic self-concept and achievement in grade 3 and grade 5. Gender-specific effects were investigated using a longitudinal, two-cycle, 3-year autoregressive cross-lagged panel design in a large, representative sample of Polish primary school pupils (N?=?4226). Analysis revealed (a) reciprocal relations between general academic self-concept and achievement over time but the influence of prior achievement on self-concept was stronger; (b) on average, levels of both constructs declined over time; (c) gender differences were not observed in longitudinal relations (i.e. cross-lagged, autoregressive and intra-wave correlations); (d) girls demonstrated higher mean levels of academic achievement at both grades; and (e) average level of general academic self-concept was not gender differentiated in grade 3 but decreased more for girls. These results are discussed in the light of the theoretical and practical implications.     

Age and developmental level as antecedents of science learning

Over the past decade, developmental theory has occupied a central role in science education instructional theory and empirical research. The purpose of the present study is to quantitatively synthesize studies relating age (or grade) and developmental level to science learning among grade 6-12 students over the 1963-1978 period. Twenty-seven studies were reviewed. Annual increments observed in measures of developmental level were consistent with current theory, and annual increments in cognitive achievement were relatively constant over the grade 4-9 interval. Measures of student ability were found to be better predictors of cognitive achievement than developmental measures; age and grade level were weakly related to developmental level and cognitive achievement, showing only significant correlations across grade levels.     

Assessing Impacts of Math in Focus,a “Singapore Math” Program

ABSTRACT

This study investigates, through a cluster randomized trial, the impact of Math in Focus, a core mathematics program modeled after instructional approaches used in Singapore, on third- through fifth-grade students’ achievement in mathematics. The program is currently being used in more than 400 school districts in the United States. The program focuses on coherence of coverage of materials across grades, use of the Concrete to Pictorial to Abstract approach to instruction, and covering fewer topics, but addressing them more thoroughly. Twenty-two grade-level teams across 12 schools were randomized to the program or business as usual. Measures included indicators of fidelity to treatment, and student mathematics learning. Impacts on mathematics achievement ranged from .11 to .15 standard deviation units. No differences in impact were observed depending on level of incoming achievement, minority status, or grade level. Impact of Math in Focus did not vary across the procedures and problem-solving subscales. Discussion of findings includes the nature of the counterfactual, and possible future direction of impact studies that may focus in greater depth on the critical features of inquiry instruction unique to Math in Focus.     

Reflection-impulsivity as a predictor of children's academic achievement

To examine the implications of differences in reflection-impulsivity for later academic achievement, 70 children were administered the Matching Familiar Figures test (MFF) in grade 4 and the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills (CTBS) in grades 4, 5, and 6. Children identified as reflective based on grade 4 MFF performance scored significantly higher on the CTBS achievement battery at all grade levels than those classified as impulsive. However, the 2 groups did not differ on the grade 5 or grade 6 achievement measures when scores were adjusted for initial differences in grade 4 CTBS. Similarly, while each of the continuous variables MFF error score and MFF response latency was significantly predictive of grade 5 and grade 6 achievement test scores, neither of the MFF variables significantly improved the prediction of academic performance when current level of achievement was statistically accounted for. Sex differences in the relations between the MFF variables and the achievement measures were identified; MFF error score was more strongly related to later academic achievement for boys than for girls, while MFF response latency was a better predictor of academic achievement for girls than for boys.     

Early feelings about school and later academic outcomes of children with special needs living in poverty

In this investigation we examined the relation of children's reported feelings about school during kindergarten or first grade to their academic achievement at the end of fifth grade. Participants were children (N = 103) who lived in poverty during early childhood and who were placed on individualized education programs (IEPs) during their elementary school years. Results indicated that early feelings about school predicted fifth-grade outcomes above and beyond predictions based on an assessment of receptive language at age 5. Specifically, general positive feelings about school predicted higher fifth-grade literacy skills whereas feelings of greater competence in academics predicted higher fifth-grade math skills. The findings have implications for interventions with young children who have special learning needs, live in poverty, and report early ambivalent or negative feelings about school.     

Pygmalion effects in the classroom: Teacher expectancy effects on students' math achievement

According to the Pygmalion effect, teachers' expectancies affect students' academic progress. Many empirical studies have supported the predictions of the Pygmalion effect, but the effect sizes have tended to be small to moderate. Furthermore, almost all existing studies have examined teacher expectancy effects on students' achievement at the student level only (does a specific student improve?) rather than at the classroom level (do classes improve when teachers have generally high expectations of their students?). The present study scrutinized the Pygmalion effect in a longitudinal study by using a large sample in regular classrooms and by differentiating between two achievement outcomes (grades and an achievement test) and two levels of analyses (the individual and classroom levels). Furthermore, students' self-concept was studied as a possible mediator of the teacher expectancy effect on achievement. Data come from a study with 73 teachers and their 1289 fifth-grade students. Multilevel regression analyses yielded three main results. First, Pygmalion effects were found at the individual level for both achievement outcomes. Second, multilevel mediation analyses showed that teacher expectancy effects were partly mediated by students' self-concept. Third, teachers' average expectancy effects at the class level were found to be nonsignificant when students' prior achievement was controlled.     

Children's Competencies in Process Skills in Kindergarten and Their Impact on Academic Achievement in Third Grade

Research Findings: The purpose of this study was to investigate the factorial structure of kindergarten children's mathematics and science process skills and the impact of children's competencies in process skills on their performance on mathematics and science achievement tests in 3rd grade. A subset of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten cohort data set (n = 8,731) was analyzed using multilevel structural equation modeling. Results demonstrated that science and mathematics process skills were highly related at the construct level but not at the indicator level, as was anticipated. Kindergarten children's competency in mathematics process skills was a strong predictor of their performance on science and mathematics achievement tests in the 3rd grade. However, children's competency in science process skills was only a significant predictor of their performance on a science achievement test in the 3rd grade. Moreover, socioeconomic status and gender were statistically significant predictors of process skills and performance on achievement tests. Practice or Policy: The findings of the present study suggest that the development of children's science and mathematics process skills should be supported utilizing integrated inquiry-based science and mathematics activities to help children recognize the connection between mathematics and science and to contribute to their science and mathematics achievement in later grades.     

A validity study of two paper-pencil tests of concrete and formal operations

Two group paper-pencil batteries, the Longeot (consisting of three subtests) and three puzzles (KLR) from Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning, were administered to 607 students from ninth and tenth grade mathematics and science classes. A subsample of 69 students was then administered three Inhelder tasks (chemicals, rods, and shadows). In general, the expected developmental trends were confirmed, with formal status being most difficult to attain on the Inhelder tasks and easiest to attain on the Longeot. The correlations between the KLR and Inhelder (0.61, p < 0.01) and the Longeot and Inhelder (0.55, p < 0.05) were moderately high. According to the method of Shayer (Note 2), it was found that each of five paper-pencil subtests discriminates at or between the 2B (late concrete) and 3A (early formal) levels while the sixth subtest, the mealworm puzzle, was found to discriminate at the 3A level. This study indicates that either group battery may be useful in identifying transitional subjects. However, if a more stringent criterion of “formal” is needed, a “success” rate of four or five out of the six subtests may be required. Both group batteries are relatively easy to administer and score with a minimum of guidance, although the KLR scoring might need to be simplified for use by the practitioner. Sex differences found on the KLR and the Longeot are suggestive of the potential differential use of these tests by researchers investigating sex differences in achievement or aptitude.     

School Effectiveness Indices Revisited: Cross-Year Stability

School effectiveness indices (SEIs) based on residuals from regressing test performance onto prior test performance and a socioeconomic status (SES) measure were obtained for 2 consecutive years for 431 elementary schools. The resulting SEIs were found to be reasonably stable year to year, the correlations ranging from. 34 to .66, depending on grade level (1–4) and subject (reading and mathematics). To aid in the identification of the factors that affect the stability of school achievement, correlations of the SEIs across subjects and grade levels were obtained also. It was determined that SEIs reflecting the performance of students at the same grade level were relatively stable, whether the same or different students were involved. However, SEIs reflecting the performance of students at different grade levels were very unstable. This suggests that grade-within-school effects dominate whatever global school effects operate in elementary schools. Implications for effective schools research, the design of school recognition/reward programs, and research and measurement specialists in general are discussed     

The relationship among college science student achievement,engaged time,and personal characteristics

The relationships among college student science achievement, engaged time (observed and perceived), and personal characteristics of academic aptitude, reasoning ability, attitude toward science, and locus of control were investigated. Measures of personal characteristics were obtained from the subjects (N= 76) of a private, liberal arts junior college before observations began in the lecture classes for the quarter. Instruments used to measure personal characteristics were Scholastic Aptitude Test, Test of Logical Thinking, Test of Scientific Attitude, and Leven-son's Multidimensional View of Locus of Control. Based on a random selection procedure, student engaged time was observed at least ten times for 11 lectures. Achievement tests were constructed and validated for the biology classes. Data were analyzed by multiple regression procedures. The average achievement scores were positively related to academic aptitude and reasoning ability. Positive relationships were found between observed engaged time and academic aptitude and a negative relationship was found between observed engaged time and reasoning ability. Also a positive relationship was found between perceived engaged time and achievement. Pearson product-moment correlations between achievement and observed engaged time were significant as were the correlations between perceived engaged time and achievement. Measure of engaged time (observed and perceived) were also related to each other. The study's data indicate that students who were observed to be engaged were low in reasoning ability or high in academic aptitude. Those who perceived themselves as being engaged achieved more. College instructors who have knowledge of student academic aptitude and reasoning ability may use this knowledge to improve achievement. Engaged time measures were significantly related to achievement, which indicates an instructor should endeavor to keep the students as engaged as possible to enhance achievement. Students who are engaged or pay attention or perceived they are engaged or paying attention during lecture classes achieve more than students who are observed as nonengaged or perceive themselves as nonengaged.     

The impact of criteria-referenced formative assessment on fifth-grade students’ theater arts achievement

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of criteria-referenced formative assessment (CRFA) on students’ achievement in theater arts. The role of type of task in differentiating the treatment-achievement relationship was explored. The analytical sample included 520 fifth-grade students from 13 schools in New York City. Schools were randomly assigned to the treatment or control group. Selection bias in treatment assignment at student level was adjusted with propensity score analysis. CRFA had a positive effect on students’ achievement on performance tasks (d = 0.25), but no significant effect on students’ performance on the analytical constructed response tasks or the theater vocabulary multiple-choice items.     

Using Reader Profiles as Snapshots to Investigate Students' Reading Performance

Explanatory patterns regarding situational differences in reading comprehension performance may be best captured by multidimensional reader profiles. Data from 56 third- and fifth-grade students were collected to investigate the applicability, scope, and convergent validity of a reader profiling scheme based on Alexander's (2005) reader profile framework and then compared with results from a hierarchical cluster analysis and a Bayesian cluster analysis. The reader profiling methodology used identified examples of all six of Alexander's reader profiles at each grade level, along with an additional hypothesized profile, the interest-reliant reader. The reader profiles related as expected to reading outcomes on a researcher-designed comprehension measure and a standardized comprehension assessment, with a few exceptions, and explained variance in those outcome measures better than the use of cluster analysis, except for the third-grade standardized scores. Finally, interesting differences emerged in the proportions of elementary students assigned to each profile across the grade levels.     

IQ and achievement: 1930s to 1980s

One hundred thirty-eight fifth-grade students from three upstate New York school districts were administered a 1930s version of the Pintner General Ability Tests: Verbal Series. Scores from this test were compared and correlated with scores from current IQ and achievement tests. The Pintner means were similar to those of the current IQ tests; the correlations of the Pintner with the other tests were of the same order as those typically reported among contemporary measures; and item difficulty, as indicated by rank order, appeared similar for the current sample and the 1930s norm groups. The findings are discussed with reference to research that has shown sharp increases in IQs of Americans since the 1930s and questions concerning changes in mental ability measures.     

Selection for special education services: the role of gender and socio-economic status

Children from some demographic groups disproportionately receive special education (SE) services. Due to methodological shortcoming in existing work, it remains unclear whether this is due to real differences in academic needs or cultural selection/bias. Hence, in a community sample of 1250 Norwegian children, we examined the role of third grade SE services, academic test scores, behavioural problems, and teacher’s level of helplessness in mediating the effect of family socio-economic status (SES) and students’ gender on fifth-grade SE services. Results revealed no direct effects of either gender or SES on fifth-grade SE, but four mediated pathways were identified: (1) Boys had a greater likelihood of receiving fifth-grade SE services when (a) they previously received SE and (b) they experienced more ADHD symptoms, both in third grade. (2) Students from low-SES families were more likely to receive SE services in fifth grade when (a) they performed poorly in math in third grade and (b) their teacher reported greater feelings of helplessness when teaching these students. The findings are discussed with respect to the differential-needs hypothesis, mechanisms of cultural selection and the possibility of gendered selection for SE at younger ages.