The role of attachment in the relationship between child maltreatment and later emotional and behavioral functioning

The experience of childhood maltreatment is an important predictor of unfavorable emotional and behavioral outcomes. Because little research examined explanatory variables in the relationship between childhood maltreatment experiences and later outcomes, this study examined the role that attachment serves in this relationship. Four hundred twenty-four participants completed questionnaires assessing the variables of interest for this study. Results indicated that both childhood maltreatment experiences (particularly emotional abuse) and attachment (particularly to mothers and peers) are significant predictors of later emotional and behavioral outcomes. Further, attachment contributed unique and significant variance to the relationship between childhood maltreatment experiences and later outcomes. Such findings suggested that secure attachment may serve as a protective factor against maladaptive emotional and behavioral outcomes as children reach emerging adulthood, even in the context of childhood maltreatment experiences. The importance of studying the relationships among these variables is discussed.     

Predictors of foster parents’ stress and associations to sensitivity in the first year after placement

In Germany, almost 70 000 children are living in foster families (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2016). Many foster children show mental health problems as they were exposed to an accumulation of risk factors. Hence, foster parents are often faced with challenging parenting situations. The current study focuses on the predictors of foster parents’ stress and examines longitudinally whether parenting stress is associated with foster parents’ sensitivity. The sample consisted of 55 children (aged from 1 to 6 years) and their foster caregivers. Foster parents’ sensitivity was observed during home visits. Caregiver reports were used to assess parenting stress (Parenting Stress Index) as well as foster children’s externalizing behavior problems (Child Behavior Checklist). For main caregivers’ stress at the beginning of placement, regression analyses revealed both, foster children’s externalizing problems as well as partners’ stress as predictive. For main caregivers’ stress one year after, only initial parenting stress and partners’ stress were predictive. Foster parents’ sensitivity was correlated with their parenting stress one year after placement. Regression analyses revealed no longitudinal effects of initial parenting stress on overall sensitivity. However, supportive presence was predicted by initial supportive presence and by the interaction between parenting stress and children’s externalizing problems at placement. The findings highlight the role of the partner in experiencing parenting stress when taking care of a foster child. Furthermore, they emphasize that foster parents who care for children with behavior problems need adequate support that can buffer initial parenting stress and thereby promote sensitive caregiving.     

The influence of children's gender and age on children's use of digital media at home

This study is the first to systematically investigate the influence of child gender and age, on parents’ perceptions of UK children's digital media use at home. It provides an in‐depth exploration of how children's age and gender influence the balance between children's use of digital and non‐digital media at home. The data draw on 709 parents’ responses to an open‐ended question asked in the context of a national survey investigating the digital reading habits of children, conducted in 2015. Parents’ responses were analysed using content and thematic analysis, which yielded eight main categories, collapsed into three major themes: control, child's healthy development and diversity of experiences. Quantitative analyses evidenced that more parents of boys were concerned about the health implications of their children's digital media use and this was a concern especially for parents of the youngest (0–2‐year‐old) children. More parents of 6–8‐year olds cited the appeal of technology as the main reason for the perceived imbalance in their children's engagement with digital media. The study provides a more secure understanding of the factors that influence parental perceptions of their children's digital media use at home, which has implications for policy‐makers, digital designers and early years professionals.     

Placement disruption in foster care: Children’s behavior,foster parent support,and parenting experiences

BackgroundThe majority of children in foster care 24 months or longer experience three or more placements. Children’s behavior problems are a primary contributor to multiple moves, but little is known about how behavior problems and other stressors lead to disruptions. This study focused on foster parents’ experiences of parenting a child at risk for moves using the determinants of parenting model (Belsky, 1984) to identify potential correlates of difficult parenting experiences and placement disruption.ObjectiveTo identify factors associated with difficult parenting experiences and placement disruption.ParticipantsFoster parents (N = 139) caring for children age 8–14 in long term foster care with a history of two or more moves were randomly selected in a large Midwestern state in the U.S.MethodsParticipants completed a 90-minute telephone interview (86% response rate). Placement moves were tracked prospectively for two years. Parenting experiences and disruption were analyzed using multiple and logistic regression.ResultsResults support aspects of the determinants of parenting model. Behavior problems, children’s risk to others, low support, and stress were significantly associated with more difficult parenting experiences (βs = .28, .22, .18, .19, respectively, ps < .05), and more difficult parenting experiences strongly predicted placement disruption (p < .01). Risk to others also predicted disruption before including parenting experiences, with this association becoming nonsignificant after including parenting experiences. Unexpectedly, African American foster parents had a higher risk for disruption, despite more positive parenting experiences.ConclusionsThese findings support attending to foster parents’ parenting experiences, children’s risk to others, social support and stress to better support placements of children at risk for disruption.     

The effect of parents' presence on children's social interactions in preschool

Preschool children's social behavior was observed in the presence and absence of their parents in parent-cooperative preschools. When their parents were working in the preschool, children engaged in less high-level peer play and more low-level peer play than in their parent's absence. They also initiated play with peers less often in their parent's presence than in their parent's absence. In addition, children expressed more negative emotion and spent much less time in proximity to adults when their parents were at school than when they were not. These findings are discussed in relation to attachment theory and their implications for practitioners.     

“Every child that is a foster child is marked from the beginning”: The home-school communication experiences of foster parents of children with disabilities

This study investigated the perceptions of foster parents of children with disabilities concerning their interactions with school personnel. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 7 foster parents of 6 children with disabilities (age range = 5–16). A qualitative analysis of the interviews resulted in the identification of five thematic areas, including foster parent perceptions of: (a) the role of the foster parent, (b) the efficacy of the foster parent in helping the child learn, (c) invitations to involvement from the school (d) invitations to involvement from the child, and (e) foster child experiences in the school system. Marked differences were found in the perceptions of the perceptions in foster parents of elementary and secondary age students.It is clear that foster parents who take on an active role in their child’s education experienced positive relationships with their child’s school. Foster parents who take a passive role in their partnerships with the schools experienced increased difficulty maintaining motivation to continue in their efforts to increase collaboration and involvement with the schools. They indicated a sense of anger, distrust, and even hostility towards the schools. Based on the findings, recommendations are provided for improving home-school relationships, and addressing obstacles to successful school partnerships with foster families.     

Parents’ perceptions and children's experiences of early intervention – inclusive practice?

This paper explores the experiences of early intervention for three families in England. The case study research considers parental perspectives and children's experiences of early intervention: what do parents want and what are children's experiences? In particular the ways in which parents and children participate in early intervention programmes in order to support learning will be explained. Case study data includes interviews with four parents. The early intervention experiences of three children with Down Syndrome aged 3–4 years old will be described and placed within the context of early years and inclusive education policy and practice in England ( DfES, 2001, 2003a,b; 2004a; TSO, 2003; QCA, 2000 ). Recent recognition within Government policy towards increased parental involvement in the learning of young children will be considered within the context of inclusive education and early years policy and practice. The ways in which parents are encouraged to be involved in developing the learning of their children and their support from professional services will be considered. The parents’ views and experiences enable a conceptualisation of the implementation of policy and practice, in relation to the opportunities provided and the difficulties encountered. The tensions identified raise questions about whether parents are receiving the kinds of support they need and expect, and in particular whether suitable consideration has been given to the pedagogic models being applied through early intervention programmes.     

Parental sensitivity and attachment in children with autism spectrum disorder: comparison with children with mental retardation, with language delays, and with typical development

This study on sensitivity and attachment included 55 toddlers and their parents. Samples included children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), mental retardation, language delay, and typical development. Children were diagnosed at 4 years of age. Two years before diagnosis, attachment was assessed with the Strange Situation procedure, and parental sensitivity and child involvement during free play were assessed with the Emotional Availability Scale. Parents of children with ASD were equally sensitive as parents of children without ASD, but their children showed more attachment disorganization and less child involvement. More sensitive parents had more secure children, but only in the group without ASD. Less severe autistic symptoms in the social domain predicted more attachment security. Autism challenges the validity of attachment theory.     

Behavior problems of children in foster care: Associations with foster mothers’ representations,commitment, and the quality of mother–child interaction

This study investigated different environmental and contextual factors associated with maltreated children's adjustment in foster care. Participants included 83 children (52 boys), ages 1–7 years, and their foster caregivers. Quality of interaction with the foster caregiver was assessed from direct observation of a free-play situation; foster caregiver attachment state of mind and commitment toward the child were assessed using two interviews; disruptive behavior symptoms were reported by foster caregivers. Results showed that quality of interaction between foster caregivers and children were associated with behavior problems, such that higher-quality interactions were related to fewer externalizing and internalizing problems. Foster caregivers’ state of mind and commitment were interrelated but not directly associated with behavior problems of foster children. Type of placement moderated the association between foster caregiver commitment and foster child behavior problems. Whereas greater foster caregiver commitment was associated with higher levels of adjustment for children in foster families (kin and non-kin), this was not the case in foster-to-adopt families. Finally, the associations between foster child behavior problems and history of maltreatment and placement related-risk conditions fell below significance after considering child age and quality of interaction with the foster caregiver. Findings underscore the crucial contribution of the foster caregiver–child relationship to fostering child adjustment and, thereby, have important implications for clinical services offered to this population.     

White children's prosocial behavior toward White versus Black peers: The role of children's effortful control and parents' implicit racial attitudes

White children's effortful control (EC), parents' implicit racial attitudes, and their interaction were examined as predictors of children's prosocial behavior toward White versus Black recipients. Data were collected from 171 White children (55% male, M_age = 7.13 years, SD = 0.92) and their parent in 2017. Prosocial behavior toward White peers was predicted by children's higher EC. When predicting prosocial behavior toward Black peers and prosocial disparity (the difference between White and Black recipients), parents' implicit racial attitudes moderated the relation between children's EC and children's prosocial behavior. Specifically, children's EC was positively associated with prosocial behavior toward Black peers (and negatively related to inequity in prosocial behavior) only when parents exhibited less implicit racial bias.     

New Lunchbox,Old Feelings: What Kids Bring to School

Research on the transition to school has shown successful adjustment to be characterized by a high degree of effort, initiative, and positive interaction with peers and adults. These behaviors often have their root in the earliest transactions between infant and caregiver, particularly the infant's experience of having his/her cues and signals responded to in a consistent, sensitive way and the secure attachment which develops from such care. Through experiences with caregivers in the first year of life children begin to develop "working models" of others and self, models which influence how that child behaves at later ages, and which in turn influence how others respond to that child. Children who are deprived of the opportunity to develop a secure attachment often fail to develop the initiative and social skills which would facilitate their transition to school. Teachers' low expectations and negative responses to the child in the first years of school may perpetuate the child's negative working models and decrease the child's chances for subsequent school success. The challenge to us is to contradict the negative working models many children bring to school. This implies l) considering the meaning of the child's behavior within the context of his/her relationship history and current life experiences, 2) consistently and persistently caring for a child even in the face of apparent rejection of our efforts, 3) looking for opportunities to reframe how we and others perceive the child, and 4) being alert to subtle ways in which we and others may be perpetuating negative working models held by both the child and his/her parents.     

Chopsticks and clothes: Chinese heritage parents' perspectives on young children's technology use as a tool for language and cultural learning

This paper presents Chinese heritage parents' perspectives on young children's use of technology as a tool for language and cultural learning. Growing up with Confucian heritage culture, some Chinese parents have particular cultural beliefs about learning that value effortful learning practices and the social context of learning. However, some Chinese parents believe technology is just a tool for entertainment and keeps children away from social interaction, which leads to their preference of print-based literacy practices at home. Four parents from different families whose children were between the ages of four to five participated in this study. These parents were interviewed about their experience and history of using technology and their thoughts about technology as a tool for language and cultural learning. Four narratives were constructed to describe parents' experiences, histories, opinions, cultural values and beliefs. Parents' perspectives were influenced by a variety of intertwined factors, including their own childhood language learning experiences, their histories of using technology, their cultural values and beliefs about learning, the purpose of technological experiences, and the quality of available technological resources. Pedagogical implications for using technology with children and communicating with parents are discussed.     

Exploring the Causal Effect of Interpretation Bias on Attachment Expectations

Attachment theory implies that children's inclination to interpret attachment figures behavior as supportive and available causally influences children's trust in their attachment figure's availability. An experiment was conducted to test whether training children (8–12 years old) to interpret ambiguous interactions with their mothers in a more secure way increases their trust in their mother's availability. Participants (N = 49) were randomly assigned to either a secure condition to train children to interpret their mother's behavior as supportive or a neutral placebo condition, where interpretations were unrelated to maternal support. Results supported the hypothesis: After the secure training, children interpreted maternal behavior more securely and trusted more in her availability. This suggests that attachment‐related processing biases causally affect attachment expectations.     

The crucial role of the micro caregiving environment: Factors associated with attachment styles in alternative care in Chile

The distribution of attachment styles has been shown to differ between groups of children living with their parents and children placed in alternative care (AC), defined as residential or foster. However, this is the first study in Latin America to explore possible factors affecting the quality of attachment in children living in both residential and foster care. Two groups of children (N = 57) were compared: one group living in Residential Homes (RC) and the other in Foster Care (FC) in Chile. Children’s, caregivers’ and structural factors (e.g., child: caregiver ratios) and their links with attachment styles were investigated. The micro caregiving environment (i.e., the specific individual child caregiver relationship), especially the caregivers’ engagement, sensitivity, disciplinary control and affection, as well as some structural factors (i.e., child: caregiver ratios), were linked to attachment security in children. Specifically, better emotional caregiving and lower child-caregiver ratios were associated with higher rates of secure attachment. The association between quality of care (as measured by the HOME inventory) and attachment styles seems to be influenced by caregiver relationships (as measured by CCSERSS). Caregiver relationship factors (i.e., affection, engagement and sensitivity) directly impact the quality of the attachment children establish with them while living in AC. However, the relationships that caregivers establish with children under their care can be facilitated by good quality structural factors, particularly child-caregiver ratios.     

Representation of self and socioemotional competence in kindergartners: differential and combined effects of attachment to mother and to father

In the present study, we examined the differential predictive power and the joint or compensatory effects of representations of child-mother and child-father attachment for children's representation of self and their socioemotional competence. The representations of attachment were assessed by an attachment story completion task, completed once for mother and once for father (in counterbalanced order). Eighty participants (40 boys and 40 girls), aged between 55 and 77 months (M = 5 years 3 months), took place in the study. The socioemotional competence (peer social competence, disruptive behavior, anxious/withdrawn behavior, and school adjustment) and behavioral manifestations of self-esteem were evaluated by the kindergarten teacher. The inner representation of self (positiveness of self, perceived competence, and social acceptance) was assessed in a subgroup of 50 children. Results showed that the relative predictive power of child-mother and child-father attachments differed according to the domain of child functioning that was assessed. More specifically, it was found that the child's positiveness of self was better predicted by the quality of the child-mother attachment representation than by the quality of the child-father attachment representation. In contrast, the child's anxious/withdrawn behavioral problems were better predicted by the quality of the child-father attachment representation than by the quality of the child-mother attachment representation. With regard to the joint effects of child-mother and child-father attachment, it was found that a secure attachment to one parent can compensate for or buffer against an insecure attachment to the other parent. However, the buffering effect was not complete.     

Involving parents through school letters: mothers,fathers and teachers negotiating children's education and rearing

The present article explores home–school relations by analyzing how Swedish teachers and parents negotiate responsibility for children's education and rearing through school letters. It draws on participant observations using a video camera in families, interviews with parents, and analysis of school letters written by teachers to parents. The division of public and private responsibility for children is negotiated in terms of expertise. Teachers position themselves as ‘educational experts’, and are able to prescribe how parents are supposed to be involved in children's education. Teachers construct parents as ‘rearing experts’, and ask them to take responsibility for their children's behavior in school by disciplining them at home. The prescribed parental subject is adopted by parents, particularly mothers, as they position themselves as involved parents.     

Is Caregiver Gender Important for Boys and Girls? Gender-Specific Child–Caregiver Interactions and Attachment Relationships

Outcomes of studies with exclusively or predominantly female caregivers suggest that boys in child care are involved with interactions, attachment relationships, and care of lower quality than girls. We investigated to what extent child gender (N = 38, 19 boys) and caregiver gender (N = 38, 19 males) is associated with child–caregiver interactions and attachment relationships. Children’s involvement and caregivers’ sensitive and stimulation behaviors were observed using systematic observations of semistructured play. Children’s secure attachment with caregivers was observed using the Attachment Q-Sort. Research Findings: Male and female caregivers showed similar sensitive behaviors toward boys and girls, and children had similar levels of secure attachment with male and female caregivers. Female caregivers had a tendency to stimulate boys more than girls, and this behavior was associated with a lower secure attachment in boys. Girls’ involvement with the caregiver was associated with male and female caregivers’ sensitive behavior and with male but not female caregivers’ stimulation. Conversely, boys’ involvement with the caregiver was elicited by sensitive but not stimulating behavior of male caregivers but not by female caregivers. Practice or Policy: Boys and girls can have equally positive interactions and attachment relationships with both male and female caregivers.