Accessible service delivery of child welfare services and differential response models

This article presents the results of a study of the impacts of accessible neighborhood and school service delivery formats for front-line child protection services within a flexible response model of child welfare in southwest Ontario, Canada. More specifically, this article looks at the contributions that these accessible service delivery models made to: (a) clients willingness to ask for help, (b) establishing constructive helping relationships, (c) accessing services and supports, (d) bridging the gap between mandated and supportive services, and (e) community engagement. The article also shows how the existing child protection service template constrained the accomplishments possible through these service delivery innovations. Accessible and central service delivery sites differed in notable ways in each of these areas.     

Predicting re-involvement for children adopted out of a public child welfare system

Some of the approximately 400,000 children currently placed out-of-home in a public child welfare system will not reunify with their family of origin. They may instead be adopted into a new family. Adoption placements can be characterized by poor adjustment for children; some such placements even result in disruption or dissolution. We conducted a stratified Cox regression of 4,016 children from the Colorado public child welfare system. All of the children had a finalized adoption during the years 2002 through 2006. The two outcomes analyzed were new child protection and youth-in-conflict referrals and assessments for these previously adopted children. New child welfare referrals and assessments may be early indicators of poor adjustment for adopted children within the adoptive family. Study results indicate that older children and Hispanic children had higher rates of referral and assessment. Children with a pre-adoption history including longer time out-of-home or a larger number of out-of-home placements also experienced higher referral and assessment rates. Additional factors which predicted subsequent system re-involvement included presence of paid adoption assistance, adoption by a non-relative foster parent and younger adoptive parent age. Several study results were moderated by the presence or absence of an ethnic match between the child and the adoptive parents. We provide an overview of the statistical model used for analysis and we discuss implications of the study results for child welfare practice.     

Culture-specific views of child maltreatment and parenting styles in a Pacific-Island community

OBJECTIVE: Providing culturally sensitive definitions of child abuse is difficult as perceptions of what constitutes abuse can vary around the world. This study was undertaken to assess how teachers in the Republic of Palau perceived the severity of potentially abusive incidents and what types of recommendations, if any, they would have for situations judged as severely abusive. Attitudes about child rearing practices were also evaluated. METHODS: Teachers (n = 141 ) were given: (1) a questionnaire consisting of 25 vignettes describing parent/child interactions that were potentially abusive and asked to rate the severity of abuse and recommended interventions for each vignette; and (2) a 40-item parenting styles questionnaires to evaluate attitudes about child-rearing practices. RESULTS: Teachers identified and recommended interventions for more severe forms of abuse at rates similar to other international samples. For less severe parental misconduct, teachers were reluctant to involve nonfamily and outside agencies. Sexual abuse was rated as the most serious type of abuse and when identified, intervention was highly recommended. Some traditional Palauan parenting practices that might be considered maltreatment by other cultures were not considered abusive. For parenting styles, older individuals were more likely to use guilt induction and less likely to use methods of acceptance. Aggressive parenting styles were negatively correlated with all forms of abuse, suggesting that teachers who used aggressive disciplinary styles were less likely to perceive abusive situations as harmful. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that cultural values and practices play important roles in shaping the definition and interpretation of child maltreatment.     

Assessing risk of commercial sexual exploitation among children involved in the child welfare system

The objective of this study was to assess item characteristics indicative of the severity of risk for commercial sexual exploitation among a high-risk population of child welfare system involved youth to inform the construction of a screening tool. Existing studies have discerned factors that differentiate Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) victims from sexual abuse victims, yet no research has been conducted to discriminate which items in a high risk population of youth are most predictive of CSEC. Using the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) cohorts I and II, we examined responses from 1063 males and 1355 females ages 11 and older, over three interview periods.A 2-parameter logistic Item Response Theory (2 PL IRT) model was employed in order to examine item performance as potential indicators for the severity of risk for CSEC. Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analysis was conducted in order to examine potential differences in item responses based on gender. Modeling strategies to assess item difficulty and discrimination were outlined and Item Characteristic Curves for the final retained items were presented. Evidence for uniform DIF were present within items that asked about runaway, any drug use, suicidality, and experiencing severe violence. Results from this study can inform the construction of a screening instrument to assess the severity of risk for experiencing CSEC.     

Child strengths and placement stability among racial/ethnic minority youth in the child welfare system

While all children deserve a stable living environment, national data illustrate that many states struggle to achieve placement stability for youth in the child welfare system as a significant number of children in foster care continue to experience multiple placements while in state custody. Prior research has not considered the impact of youth protective factors or strengths on the frequency of placement changes that youth experience while in the child welfare system. This study examined the association between strengths measured at multiple levels (i.e., individual, family, and community) and placement stability among 4022 minority youth (aged 10–18) using administrative and clinical data from the Illinois child welfare system. Negative binomial regressions at the family level revealed that youth with at least one loving and supportive family member experienced 16% fewer placement changes than youth without family strengths. At the community level, youth attending schools that work to create an environment that meets its students’ needs experienced 13% fewer placement changes than youth without educational supports. These findings can inform the quality of treatment and services provided to minority youth in the child welfare system.     

Differences in polysubstance use among youth in the child welfare system: Toward a better understanding of the highest-risk teens

The current study extended limited prior work on polysubstance use among youth in the child welfare system (CWS) by addressing their potentially greater risk of engaging in polysubstance use, the causes of interpersonal variation in use, and changes in use over time, particularly at later points of involvement in the CWS. Using longitudinal data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (n = 1,178), a series of time-invariant and time-varying demographic and contextual factors were explored to assess their role both overall and at unique points of involvement in the CWS. A series of unconditional and conditional curve-of-factor models were estimated and results indicated that time-invariant characteristics of ethnicity and gender were not related to polysubstance use. Time-variant characteristics of age and placement were associated with polysubstance use and highlighted the dynamic nature of age as a risk factor. Out-of-home placement was protective against later substance use for youth who had been removed from contexts with their original caretaker where there were higher levels of reported violence. Our results suggest that in the child welfare population, the modeling of multiple substances rather than a single substance in isolation is more informative because it yields information on the confluence of behaviors that tend to occur and evolve together.     

How much of a problem is resident mistreatment in child welfare institutions?

The purpose of this article is to provide information developed since 1980 by the Institutional Child Protection Project about the size and significance of the problem of mistreatment in child welfare residential institutions. In the 1.700 facilities surveyed, there are about 69.000 children and youths. Rates of utilization vary among Health and Human Services (H.H.S.) regions from 8 per 10.000 to 19 per 10.000 children and youths in the population. The average rate is 12 per 10.000. In 1961 this rate was estimated at 10 per 10,000. About 2,700 complaints were reported by facilities to the survey for 1979. Complaint rates range by H.H.S. region from 25 per 1.000 to 55 per 1.000 children and youth in care. The average complaint rate per 1.000 residents in care was 39. Observations of site visitors suggest that only one out of five complainable situations may be reported to child protection agencies. A list of complainable occurrences that came to the attention of site visitors is included to document the problem. An additional effort to assess the significance of this issue is made by comparing intrafamilial complaint rates with rates reported by child welfare facilities. The authors believe residential complaint rates may be twice as large as intrafamilial complaint rates.     

Profiles and predictors of behavioral resilience among children in child welfare

Children living in out-of-home care have experienced a multitude of adversities, often resulting in compromised functioning. The current study used Ontario Looking After Children (OnLAC) project data to estimate developmental trajectories of behavioral outcomes (i.e., conduct and emotional problems) over a 4-year period (i.e., ages 6–10 to 9–13) in 313 children living in out-of-home care. Predictors measured at baseline (e.g., sex) and across the subsequent 4-year period (e.g., parenting practices) were also investigated. Findings indicated that 64.2% and 58.6% followed resilient trajectories for conduct behaviors and emotional functioning, respectively. Predictors of resilient trajectories included internal developmental assets, number of children in the home, whether the child was receiving treatment, and positive parenting. Findings need to be interpreted with an understanding that children in out-of-home care have varying levels of functioning across various domains (e.g., educational, social) other than the ones measured here. Predictors were static and dynamic and cut across various contexts, emphasizing the importance of considering child functioning within an ecological model.     

Subtypes of exposure to intimate partner violence within a Canadian child welfare sample: Associated risks and child maladjustment

Children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) are at increased risk of experiencing behavioral difficulties including externalizing and internalizing problems. While there is mounting evidence about mental health problems in children exposed to IPV, most of the research to date focuses on IPV exposure as a unitary, homogeneous construct. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between subtypes of IPV exposure on child functioning and presence of harm within a child welfare sample. Given the evidence of the “double whammy” effect, co-occurring IPV exposure was also examined. Using data from the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect – 2008 (n = 2,184) we examined whether specific IPV exposure subtypes or their co-occurrence resulted in a greater risk of child maladjustment. Information was obtained from child welfare workers’ reports. Caregiver and household risk factors were also examined. Co-occurring IPV exposure resulted in the greatest risk for reported child maladjustment. Exposure to emotional IPV and direct physical IPV were significantly associated with increased risk of internalizing problems and presence of harm. Caregiver mental health and lack of social support emerged as significant risk factors for behavior problems. This study adds to the evidence that exposure to subtypes of IPV may be differentially related to child functioning. Given that risk factors and child functioning is part of the decision-making framework for case worker referrals, this study provides important preliminary evidence about how the child welfare system operates in practice with respect to sub-types of exposure to IPV. These findings suggest that intervening with children exposed to different types of IPV may require a tailored approach.     

Child maltreatment characteristics as predictors of heterogeneity in internalizing symptom trajectories among children in the child welfare system

This study investigated heterogeneity in the developmental trajectories of internalizing symptoms among 541 children who were involved with the child welfare system and examined child maltreatment characteristics, including types, level of harm, and timing, as predictors of internalizing trajectory patterns. Secondary longitudinal research was conducted using data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being-I, collected from 1999 to 2007 in the United States. Three distinct trajectory groups were identified: high–decreasing; low–increasing; and low–stable Sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and more severe levels of harm from maltreatment predicted membership in two maladaptive groups compared to the low–stable group. The findings of the study suggest the importance of providing a thorough assessment of the type and severity of maltreatment experiences and continued monitoring of internalizing symptoms for children with child welfare involvement.     

Developing and testing a framework for evaluating the quality of comprehensive family assessment in child welfare

Over the last decade, Comprehensive Family Assessment (CFA) has become a best practice in child welfare. Comprehensive Family Assessments go beyond risk assessment to develop a full picture of the child's and family's situation. When appropriately synthesized, assessment information can lead to a clear articulation of the patterns of child or family functioning which are related to child abuse and maltreatment or which can be strengthened to facilitate change. This study defines and provides concrete examples of dimensions of quality in child welfare assessment reports that are consistent with the CFA guidelines and best practices embraced by child welfare agencies, courts, and other key stakeholders. Leveraging a random assignment design, the study compares the quality of reports written by a caseworker alone versus those written by a caseworker paired with a licensed Integrated Assessment (IA) screener. Findings are discussed in the context of the dual professional model and factors contributing to the timely completion of high quality assessment reports.     

Mothers' parenting practices and adolescents' learning from their mistakes in class: The mediating role of adolescent's self-disclosure

This study examined 126 students' (14–16 years of age; 66 females) perceptions of self-disclosure to their mothers with respect to their mistakes in class activities. Specifically, we hypothesized that self-disclosure would predict adolescents' ability to learn from mistakes they made in classroom tasks. In addition, we hypothesized that perceived mothers' love withdrawal would correlate negatively with adolescents' self-disclosure, whereas perceived autonomy support would correlate positively with self-disclosure. Further, we hypothesized that the effect of mothers' parenting practices on adolescents' ability to learn from their mistakes would be mediated by adolescents' self-disclosure of their school experiences. Results, using SEM analyses, showed the importance of mothers' autonomy support for adolescents' self-disclosure and learning from their mistakes in classroom tasks.     

Patterns of individual change in a parenting program for child maltreatment and their relation to family and professional environments

In the area of child maltreatment prevention, little is known about the typology of changes that individuals undergo in response to parent-training interventions. In this study, we examined the patterns of change observed in parents immediately after their completion of the Apoyo Personal y Familiar (APF, Personal and Family Support) parenting program. We identified five clusters and classified 496 parents according to two criteria: (a) the amount of pre-post changes (total or partial) as reflected in their self-reports on implicit theories, parental agency and childrearing practices, and (b) the positive, negative or mixed character of these changes. The study also included a follow-up of a subset of 95 participants intended to examine the extent to which the patterns of change identified in the first part of the study might predict the quality of the childrearing environment at home and the successful integration of the APF program into social services structures one year on. In this follow-up study, external evaluators observed families’ home environments and collected the parenting program facilitators’ self-reports on changes to their work environment. The evaluators found higher-quality childrearing environments and more positive appraisals of the changes to the teams’ work with families in those cases where participants had experienced partial or total positive changes as a result of the APF. This approach offers insights into processes of individual change that have practical implications for the successful implementation of parenting programs in child maltreatment prevention services.     

Randomized controlled trial of a parenting program to reduce the risk of child maltreatment in South Africa

Parenting programs in high-income countries have been shown to reduce the risk of child maltreatment. However, there is limited evidence of their effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. The objective of this study was to examine the initial effects of a parenting program in reducing the risk of child maltreatment in highly-deprived and vulnerable communities in Cape Town, South Africa. Low-income parents (N = 68) with children aged three to eight years were randomly assigned to either a group-based parenting program or a wait-list control group. Observational and parent-report assessments were taken at baseline and at immediate post-test after the intervention was delivered. Primary outcomes were parent-report and observational assessments of harsh parenting, positive parenting, and child behavior problems. Secondary outcomes were parent-report assessments of parental depression, parenting stress, and social support. Results indicated moderate treatment effects for increased frequency of parent-report of positive parenting (d = 0.63) and observational assessments of parent-child play (d = 0.57). Observational assessments also found moderate negative treatment effects for less frequent positive child behavior (d = −0.56). This study is the first randomized controlled trial design to rigorously test the effectiveness of a parenting program on reducing the risk of child maltreatment in sub-Saharan Africa using both observational and self-report assessments. Results provide preliminary evidence of effectiveness of reducing the risk of child maltreatment by improving positive parenting behavior. Further development is required to strengthen program components regarding child behavior management and nonviolent discipline strategies. Future research would benefit from a larger trial with sufficient power to determine program effectiveness.     

Supporting child and family resilience in the face of political violence: Evidence from a home visit parenting program

Political violence affects more than 25% of children globally, yet little is known about how to support positive adaptation among conflict-affected children. Using a sample of 3797 Nicaraguan child-caregiver dyads (M_AgeTime1 = 1.5 years, M_AgeTime2 = 5.9 years; 51% male), this registered report used a novel quasi-experimental approach to examine how exposure to political violence relates to child and caregiver outcomes, and to test three policy-relevant moderators: participation in a large-scale home visit parenting program, household economic disruption, and media exposure. Results revealed positive associations between political violence and harsh discipline practices (0.33 SD), but there was no evidence that political violence affected children's behavior, caregiver depressive symptoms, or responsive parenting practices, and there was no evidence of moderation.     

Transnationalism,parenting, and child disciplinary practices of African immigrants in Alberta,Canada

Child discipline remains a topic of public health interest across the globe. Despite this enduring interest, very little is known about the child disciplinary practices of African immigrants in Canada. This paper explores the disciplinary practices of African immigrant parents in Alberta, a Canadian province with a recent surge in the population of African immigrants. Employing a critical ethnographic methodology, informed by transnational theory, we collected data through in-depth qualitative interviews with a purposive sample of African community leaders (n = 14), African immigrant parents (n = 32), policymakers (n = 2), and health and immigrant settlement workers (n = 10). As members of the African immigrant community, we were deeply immersed in the research settings, which afforded us the opportunity to collect pertinent observational data in the form of reflexive notes. Thematic analysis of the data revealed child disciplinary approaches that incorporate Canadian and African parenting practices, as well as practices that appear somewhat unique to this demographic. We found that African immigrant parents used corporal discipline, persuasive discipline, and a hybrid of the two, as well as emerging practices involving transnational fostering and emotional isolation of children who persistently misbehaved. These practices, in their totality, appeared to be influenced by the transnational experiences of parents and precepts that are traceable to Canada’s legal and educational systems. We present theoretical, policy, and service implications of our findings, including a recommendation to incorporate sociocultural dimensions of child discipline into Canadian child welfare policies and practices.     

An evaluation system for suitability of urban public rental housing construction in Chongqing

A social problem that low-income people are unable to purchase houses in urban areas has been focused in recent years and the housing security system has also become an important part of the social security system. In recent years, public rental houses appeared as a new type of affordable houses. The national government took the construction of public rental houses to the national strategic level. Currently, there are many problems in the public rental house construction. For example, policy mechanisms are inadequate, the use of funding is not in an efficient way, the location of public rental houses is far away from the downtown, the plot ratio is too high, and facilities are incomplete. There are no appropriate indicators to comprehensively evaluate the public rental house construction. Based on the livable evaluation system in Chongqing, we selected four aspects of relevant indicators as the economic suitability, environmental suitability, social suitability, and life suitability to establish the public rental house construction suitability evaluation system.