Interactive and non-interactive pictures in multimedia learning environments: Effects on learning outcomes and learning efficiency

New technologies enable flexible combinations of text and interactive or non-interactive pictures. The aim of the present study was to investigate (a) whether adding pictures to texts is generally beneficial for learning or whether it can also have detrimental effects, (b) how interactivity of pictures affects learning, (c) whether the visualization format of pictures affects the structure of the learner's mental model, and (d) whether the visualization format modifies the effects of interactivity. One hundred university students were randomly assigned to five groups. In four groups, a text about the different daytimes and days on the earth was combined with interactive or non-interactive pictures of different visualization formats. In the fifth group, the text was presented without pictures. According to the results, adding pictures to text was neither beneficial nor harmful for learning. In terms of learning efficiency, however, learning from text only was more successful than learning from text and pictures. Interactivity was beneficial for one learning task, but not for the other task. The visualization format affected participants’ interaction with pictures, but not the learning outcomes; however this effect was not influenced by interactivity. Implications for multimedia design and for further research are pointed out.     

Successive and simultaneous picture and passage formats: Visual,tactual, and topical effects

This study attempted to determine whether there would be a significant difference between (a) simultaneous formats (boards) of pictures and passages and successive formats (booklets) with identical pictures and passages; (b) one simultaneous format (board with manipulative pictures) and another simultaneous format (board with stationary pictures); and (c) a topic of higher interest (THI) and a topic of lower interest (TLI) for each of the formats. The findings suggest that older children may achieve higher levels of learning when exposed to simultaneous formats of pictures and passages. Questionnaire results indicate that the Ss preferred the simultaneous formats and the THI by 2:1 ratios. The research for this study was conducted at Michigan State University.     

Learning from multimedia presentations: Facilitation function of animations and spatial abilities

Animations may facilitate learning by providing external support for visual–spatial mental processing. Facilitation is challenged by findings that demonstrate involvement of spatial abilities in learning from animations, because this involvement indicates active internal visual–spatial processing. In the present study, learners attended to a system-paced multimedia presentation in which a verbal–auditory explanation was concurrently synchronized either with animation, with static core pictures, or with enriched static pictures that showed additional intermediate steps and arrows indicating motion. Results demonstrated better learning success with animations and with enriched static pictures than with static pictures. Spatial abilities were not substantively related to learning success with animations or with static pictures, but they played a crucial role for learning success with enriched static pictures. It is concluded that active visual–spatial processing was recruited with enriched static pictures. With animations, learning was truly facilitated by external support for visual–spatial mental processing.     

高、低考试焦虑者的工作记忆刷新功能:任务负荷与刺激材料的影响

以考试相关和中性图片为刺激材料,采用n-back实验范式,考察高、低任务负荷条件下,高、低考试焦虑者的工作记忆刷新表现。结果表明:高、低负荷任务中,高考试焦虑者对考试相关图片的反应时都显著长于低焦虑者;高负荷任务中,高考试焦虑者对考试相关图片的反应正确率显著低于低考试焦虑者,而在低负荷任务中无差异。对中性图片的反应时及正确率两组均无差异。研究认为,高负荷条件下,高考试焦虑者对考试相关图片的工作记忆刷新功能较低考试焦虑者有显著缺陷。     

Memory for Expository Text: the effects of verbal and pictorial enhancements

Previous research has shown that pictures can be effective in enhancing text memory. For example, Waddill and McDaniel (1992) found that pictures depicting detail information in an expository text effectively enhanced recall of those details and pictures depicting relational information effectively enhanced recall of those relations. However, the research on picture enhancement effects raises the question of whether the mnemonic value of pictures is simply a by‐product of having drawn attention to parts of the text through selective repetition of text content. The present study addressed the question by comparing the relative effectiveness of pictures versus simple verbal captions in promoting text memory. The results replicated the Waddill and McDaniel (1992) pictorial enhancement effect. However, the results showed that repeating the targeted information in a verbal caption was as effective as providing a pictorial illustration, thus suggesting that repetition of text content rather than nonverbal pictorial illustrations produced the effect. The findings generalized across three texts that differed in the amount of spatial content they conveyed.     

Memory for pictures: a life-span study of the role of visual detail

This experiment assessed the effect of the amount of physical detail in pictures on picture recognition memory for 7-year-olds, 9-year-olds, young adults, and older adults over 68. Subjects were presented simple and complex line drawings, factorially combined in a "same-different" recognition test with simple or complex forms of each. For each age group, recognition accuracy was significantly higher for pictures presented in the simple than in the complex form. This effect was due to differences between simple and complex pictures in the correct rejection rate but not the hit rate; subjects were less accurate detecting deletions from changed complex pictures than additions to changed simple pictures. The older adults were no better than chance at correctly rejecting changed complex pictures. Although increasing the presentation duration from 5 sec to 15 sec increased overall accuracy, it did not increase subjects' ability to correctly reject changed complex pictures. Results are interpreted in terms of schematic encoding and storage of pictures. Accordingly, visual information that communicates the central schema of each picture is more likely to be encoded and retained in memory than information that does not communicate this schema.     

武强年画:由生活符号走向文化象征

作为"庄稼年画"的武强年画,是在农耕基础上发展起来的一种乡土艺术。随着全球化、社会现代化的不断加快,武强年画作为传统民间工艺的一种,发生着巨大的变迁。现如今的武强年画在文化产业、博物馆和传承人身份的转变3个向度昭示了其逐渐由生活符号走向文化象征的变迁过程。     

Pictures and children’s story recall: Some questions of durability

It has been found that story-relevant pictures help children recall stories. But do those gains endure over time? Those of the second graders in this study did, over a 3-day period. Although they had more to forget, children aided by pictures did not forget more than those in a control group.     

External and internal representations in the acquisition and use of knowledge: visualization effects on mental model construction

This article investigates whether different formats of visualizing information result in different mental models constructed in learning from pictures, whether the different mental models lead to different patterns of performance in subsequently presented tasks, and how these visualization effects can be modified by further external representations during task performance. A total of 80 university students learned from an illustrated text different day times and different dates exist simultaneously on the earth. One half of the participants received the text combined with pictures visualizing the earth as a kind of carpet (carpet pictures), whereas the other half received the text combined with pictures visualizing the earth surface as a circle (circle pictures). After learning, the participants received a test including different kinds of tasks. In both visualization groups, one half of the participants solved the tasks with an additional external representation, whereas the other half solved the tasks without an external representation. The findings indicate that the form of visualization affects the structure of mental models. Different structures of mental models result in different patterns of performance, when individuals solve tasks based only on their mental representations acquired during their previous learning. However, these effects decrease, when further external representations are made available to the learners. The findings are discussed within a broader framework of learning with multiple external representations.     

An integrative study on learning and testing with multimedia: Effects on students’ performance and metacognition

Previous research has found that adding pictures to either text-based learning- or testing-materials has beneficial effects (i.e., multimedia effects in learning and testing). However, a potential interaction of multimedia effects in learning and in testing has scarcely been the focus of research so far. Accordingly, in the present experiment, N = 129 university students received text-based material that was either complemented by pictures both in learning and testing (P-P), only in learning and not in testing (P-T), in testing but not in learning (T-P), or not at all (T-T). Students performed better in the P-P condition than in the other three conditions (P-T, T-P, T-T). Differences between the latter three conditions were not significant. Thus, pictures needed to be present in both learning and testing to foster students' performance. Nonetheless, pictures boosted students’ confidence even if performance was not actually improved, thereby underlining the risk of picture-induced metacognitive bias.     

Beliefs About Thought Probability: Evidence for Persistent Errors in Mindreading and Links to Executive Control

Four‐ to 10‐year‐olds' and adults' (N = 263) ability to inhibit privileged knowledge and simulate a naïve perspective were examined. Participants viewed pictures that were then occluded aside from a small ambiguous part. They offered suggestions for how a naïve person might interpret the hidden pictures, as well as rated the probability that a naïve person would think of several different pictures (with one picture being the actual item). Results indicated a significant increase between ages 4 and 7 years in attributing novel interpretations; however, all age groups overestimated the probability that a naïve person could guess the actual pictures. Individual differences in working memory and inhibitory control predicted participants' thought suggestions as well as aspects of their probability judgments.     

Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning

New technologies allow the display of text, static visuals, and animations. Although animations are inherently attractive, they are not always beneficial for learning. Problems may arise especially when animations modify the learner's cognitive load in an unintended way. In two learning experiments with 40 and 26 university students, the effects of animated pictures on knowledge acquisition were investigated. Some pictures displayed visual simulations of changes over time, whereas other pictures could be manipulated by learners to represent different states in time. Results showed that manipulation pictures had an enabling function for individuals with high learning prerequisites, whereas simulation pictures had a facilitating function for individuals with low learning prerequisites. However, the facilitating function was not beneficial for learning, because learners were prevented from performing relevant cognitive processes on their own. A careful analysis of the interrelation between different kinds of cognitive load and the process of learning is therefore required.     

Enriching children's recall of picture-dictionary definitions with interrogation and elaborated pictures

Preschool-age children were presented four picture-dictionary definitions to leam. Definitions were accompanied either by pictures detailing all the attributes of the definition referent (elaborated pictures) or simpler, less complete illustrations (nonelaborated pictures). After one presentation, the definition was repeated either as a series of questions to which the child responded, or as simple declarative restatements. Total recall of information stated in the definitions was improved by the elaborated pictures. The presence of elaborated pictures also resulted in greater recall congruent with the defined concept, but not present in the definition as stated (i.e., inferences). Questioning produced a higher percentage of paraphrased recall (i.e., nonverbatim recall of information stated in the definitions). These latter two findings are consistent with the interpretation that both elaborated pictures and questions lead preschoolers to process more extensively information provided in definitions.     

对武强年画的考察及发展对策

武强年画历史悠久、品种繁多,是民间年画中的佼佼者。但传统年画随着传统习俗的改变和社会现代变革,出现了濒危局面,笔者以为应该从以下几个方面入手拯救武强年画并推向国内外市场。1)突出地域特色,强化品牌意识;2)高中低档全面出击,占领国内市场;3)订单式生产,瞄准国际市场;4)融众家之长,推陈出新。     

运用图片与影音资料于外国文学多媒体教学课件

外国文学教学中应用多媒体课件时适当地引入图片与影音资料,可起到加强形象化之效果。就运用图片与影音资料在凸现多媒体的优越性、图片与影音资料的选用原则以及搜集和利用方法等方面展开探讨。     

The influence of visual cognitive style when learning from instructional animations and static pictures

In a 2 × 2 design, we examined the role of visual cognitive style in two multimedia-based learning environments (text plus static pictures/animations). A statistically significant interaction was obtained for deeper comprehension: Highly developed visualizers (HDV) who learned with static pictures performed better than HDV who learned with animations, and less developed visualizers (LDV) performed the same with static pictures or animations.For factual knowledge, there was a main effect in favor of HDV. Subsequent tests revealed that HDV outperformed LDV only when learning from static pictures, but not when studying animations. There were no overall differences between animations and static pictures. The assumption is made that HDV benefit from their cognitive style when they have to construct a mental animation from static pictures.Concluding, we did not find any rationale for converting static pictures to animations — HDV learned better with static pictures, while for LDV, it made no difference.     

In search of instructional utility: A function-based approach to pictorial research

In spite of considerable research on various aspects of pictures and their instructional uses, a clear conception of the instructional potential of pictures is missing. As a result, practitioners who deal directly with the instructional process are limited in their ability to use pictures most effectively and efficiently. The approach to picture research described here attempts to make research more relevant by suggesting the need to pay greater attention to the instructional role or function served by pictures. Potential functions must be described in terms of their contribution to instructional processes and procedures. Functions should also be applicable to a wide variety of objectives, strategies, and procedures. The relevance of this approach to both basic and applied pictorial research is also discussed.     

中国早期商业电影的商业运作行为研究（1922—1931）——以宣传图片为中心

中国电影1905年诞生,直到1922年后国产商业电影才走向繁荣,各种商业宣传手段也开始出现。1925年到1926年之间,《上海画报》、《良友》、《银星》先后创刊,这些以图片为主的杂志开始登载各类与电影有关的图片,包括电影剧照、电影明星照片、电影片场摄影等。与此同时,各种招贴海报也成为电影宣传的重要手段。这些宣传图片为后来的研究者提供了大量的资料。从图片中,可以简要了解当时电影业发展的概况,更重要的是可以窥探出当时电影背后的诸如拍摄期的宣传、电影明星的推广等商业运作手段。     

Inference by Eye: Pictures of Confidence Intervals and Thinking About Levels of Confidence

A picture of a 95% confidence interval (CI) implicitly contains pictures of CIs of all other levels of confidence, and information about the p‐value for testing a null hypothesis. This article discusses pictures, taken from interactive software, that suggest several ways to think about the level of confidence of a CI, p‐values, and what conclusions can be drawn from inspecting a CI.     

Individual and co-operative learning with interactive animated pictures

Computer-based multimedia learning environments make it possible to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow the dynamic behavior of complex subject matter to be displayed. Due to the large range of possibilities for exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem well suited for co-operative learning in which different learners analyse the presented subject matter from different perspectives. This paper first describes a theoretical framework for learning from texts and pictures together with an analysis of possible effects of animation and interactivity on knowledge acquisition. It then presents two empirical studies in which knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a superior encoding of detail information, but did not facilitate performance of mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in inferior encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of subjects’ co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load and that this load can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures may provide external support for mental simulations, they do not appear to be generally beneficial for learning, because they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.