Development of system thinking skills in the context of earth system education

The current study deals with the development of system thinking skills at the junior high school level. The sample population included about 50 eighth‐grade students from two different classes of an urban Israeli junior high school who studied an earth systems‐based curriculum that focused on the hydro cycle. The study addressed the following research questions: (a) Could the students deal with complex systems?; (b) What has influenced the students' ability to deal with system perception?; and (c) What are the relationship among the cognitive components of system thinking? The research combined qualitative and quantitative methods and involved various research tools, which were implemented in order to collect the data concerning the students' knowledge and understanding before, during, and following the learning process. The findings indicated that the development of system thinking in the context of the earth systems consists of several sequential stages arranged in a hierarchical structure. The cognitive skills that are developed in each stage serve as the basis for the development of the next higher‐order thinking skills. The research showed that in spite of the minimal initial system thinking abilities of the students most of them made some meaningful progress in their system thinking skills, and a third of them reached the highest level of system thinking in the context of the hydro cycle. Two main factors were found to be the source of the differential progress of the students: (a) the students' individual cognitive abilities, and (b) their level of involvement in the knowledge integration activities during their inquiry‐based learning both indoors and outdoors. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Problem-solving analysis: A piagetian study

Fifty-nine second-year medical students were asked to solve 12 Piagetian formal operational tasks. The purpose was to describe the formal logical characteristics of this medical student sample (59 of a total 65 possible) in terms of their abilities to solve problems in four formal logical schemata-combinatorial logic, probabilistic reasoning, propositional logic, and proportional reasoning. These tasks were presented as videotape demonstrations or in written form, depending on whether or not equipment manipulation was required, and were scored using conventional, prespecified scoring criteria. The results of this study show approximately 96% of the sample function at the transitional (Piaget's 3A level) stage of formal operations on all tasks and approximately 4% function at the full formal (Piaget's 3B level) stage of formal operations on all tasks. This sample demonstrates formal level thinking to a much greater degree than other samples reported in the literature to date and suggests these students are adequately prepared and developed to meet the challenge of their training (i.e., medical problem solving).     

计算思维培养阶段划分与教授策略探讨——基于皮亚杰认知发展阶段论

对计算思维概念本质与结构框架的提炼是计算思维教授策略的基础。文章以皮亚杰认知发展阶段论的儿童思维发展逻辑为框架基础,划分计算思维培养的四阶段:实体感知与行为互动中的前计算思维阶段、符号象征与任务驱动中的计算思维准备阶段、逻辑推演与思维抽象中的计算思维形成阶段及假设推理与形式运演中的计算思维发展阶段。根据各阶段儿童认知心理与行为特点的不同设定相应的教学方式与策略:以实物感知与实体操作浸润前计算思维阶段、以逻辑任务与人机交互贯穿计算思维准备阶段、以图形化编程与计算参与助力计算思维形成阶段、以学科领域延伸与深度逻辑推理渗透计算思维发展阶段。     

Teacher cognitive functioning as a factor in observed variety and level of classroom teaching behavior

A review of the literature suggests a relationship between life-long development of formal reasoning schema and performance in professional education careers. The study investigated implications of cognitive development of preservice teachers as it relates to their classroom teaching performance. Ninety-one seniors involved in a field-oriented teacher education program were given classroom responsibilities which included teaching a science unit. Formal thinking abilities were assessed using two types of developmental level tasks, performance on traditional type Piagetian tasks and recognition of formal thought approaches in solving educational tasks. Professional behaviors were assessed using observational ratings of classroom instructional and planning activities. Subjects assessed as formal operational, 30% of sample, using Piagetian performance tasks, had significantly higher facility in performing model classroom teaching behaviors than transitional or concrete subjects. Higher recognition ability of formal thought approaches to teaching was not related to facility in performing classroom teaching when compared to performance on Piagetian tasks. The relationship held up in seven of eight broad teaching behavior categories observed in classroom instruction. The results supported a general portrait of teaching behavior specifically related to teachers of differing cognitive functional levels. Implications for professional training programs are discussed.     

FLUENCY,FLEXIBILITY, AND ORIGINALITY IN LATER ADULTHOOD

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between divergent thinking abilities, self‐esteem, and personal characteristics of older adults. A total of 39 subjects ranging in age from 61 to 84 years responded to a personal data inventory, a self‐esteem measure, and a taped auditory free‐response exercise in divergent thinking. Scores were obtained for fluency, flexibility, and originality of thought and for self‐esteem. Level of education was the best predictor of divergent thinking abilities. Self‐esteem and age were significantly correlated with fluency and flexibility but not with originality. Level of education accounted for the greatest proportion of variance in divergent thinking scores. In the multiple regressions neither self‐esteem nor age accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in fluency, flexibility, or originality. Self‐reports of subjects supported positiveness in self‐perceptions. Results are discussed in terms of the age‐decrement model of cognitive abilities and positiveness of educational intervention efforts.     

Moral development: Theory and applications

Kohlberg's theory of moral development explores the roles of cognition and emotion but focuses primarily on cognition. Contemporary post‐formal theories lead to the conclusion that skills resulting from cognitive‐affective integration facilitate consistency between moral judgement and moral behaviour. Rest's four‐component model of moral development delineates these skills specifically. The components, moral motivation, moral sensitivity, moral reasoning and moral character, operate as multidimensional processes that facilitate moral development and subsequently promote moral behaviour. The relationships between these components have been relatively unexplored, thereby missing the opportunity to unpack the processes underlying moral growth and development. In this study, moral motivation (spirituality), moral sensitivity (post‐formal skills) and moral reasoning are operationalized to examine the mediational effects of moral sensitivity of medical students. In the complex moral environment of medical students opportunities arise to question values and develop cognitive‐affective skills, among them spirituality and post‐formal thinking which are linked to increases in post‐conventional moral reasoning. The models tested indicate that moral sensitivity mediates the relationship between moral motivation and moral reasoning.     

The relationship between culture and the development of critical thinking abilities of prospective teachers

The emphasis placed on the individualistic and universal nature of cognitive development in some cognitive development models has resulted in the neglect of the cultural context in the development of cognitive abilities. Consequences of this approach for cognitive development are the strong emphasis which is placed on age-dependent patterns of growth and uniformity. Furthermore, the occurrence of changes in the relationship between an individual and the surrounding environment as crucial for the development of cognitive abilities are neglected. In this paper, a cultural approach to the development of critical thinking abilities is proposed in contrast to the traditional, individualistic approach.     

Cognitive Teaching Methods for Special Education: Development of Approaches for Intervention and Assessment in Germany

FOLLOWING a short introduction to historical aspects of the development of cognitive teaching methods, four current areas of research are described: cognitive behaviour modification with a focus on problem solving and metacognitive abilities, comprising the methods of cognitive modelling and self‐instruction; intelligence training based on the theoretical propositions of inductive thinking; attempts at applying Piagetian concepts as a conceptual framework for education and training; dynamic testing, focussing on modifiability of performance and thus bridging the gap between diagnostic assessment and education. Basic theoretical assumptions, methods and applications are separately discussed for each of these fields. Empirical data are presented for evaluation of their level of development Summarizing the results, it seems, that promising effects of training and fruitful application of diagnostic procedures can be obtained; however, implementation of the respective methods in special education settings does not show great progress. It is, thus, concluded that research on implementation is indispensable.     

PULLING YOURSELF UP BY YOUR OWN THINKING

This paper concentrates on the metacognitve aspects of materials produced by the Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education project. A set of activities for promoting higher level thinking skills in adolescents emphasises the development of metacognitive understanding of the reasoning patterns students use to solve problems. (Other psychological elements built into activities were focussed on the reasoning patterns of formal operations, the use of cognitive conflict, and conscious effort to make transfer from the activity content to wider contexts.) Examples are given, and the long term results following a two year trial reported. Although it is not possible to isolate statistically the specific contribution of encouragement of metacognition to the gains in cognitive development in science which were demonstrated, it is argued that the children's development of the ability to think about the nature of their own thinking was a critical contributor to success, without which the effectiveness of other aspects of the activities could not have been realised.     

Hypothesis testing in students: Sequences,stages, and instructional strategies

Six sequences in the development of hypothesis-testing conceptions are proposed, involving (a) interpretation of the hypothesis; (b) the distinction between using theories and testing theories; (c) the consideration of multiple possibilities; (d) the relation of theory and data; (e) the nature of verification and falsification; and (f) the relation of truth and falsity. An alternative account is then provided involving three global stages: concrete operations, formal operations, and a postformal “metaconstructive”stage. Relative advantages and difficulties of the stage and sequence conceptualizations are discussed. Finally, three families of teaching strategy are distinguished, which emphasize, respectively: (a) social transmission of knowledge; (b) carefully sequenced empirical experience by the student; and (c) self-regulated cognitive activity of the student. It is argued on the basis of Piaget's theory that the last of these plays a crucial role in the construction of such logical reasoning strategies as those involved in testing hypotheses.     

Postformal Cognitive Reasoning and Organizational Problem-Solving Success

Adults are capable of cognitive development beyond formal operations. The concept of the global village and its attendant social complexity will challenge individuals with anomalous events and issues that do not conform to our current systems thinking structures. Because such events and problems exist outside our traditional and familiar models of problem structuring, they appear ill-defined. Advanced modes of thought will be required to solve these types of ill-structured problems that real life will present. Failure to facilitate the development of postformal reasoning skills in organizations may manifest itself in an unacceptable difference in problem-solving behavior between those with postformal cognition and those reasoning at less cognitively dynamic levels.     

Representation and Process in Learning Environments for Mathematics: A Commentary on Three Systems

Three computer‐based systems for teaching arithmetic and algebra are discussed. The systems embody several pedagogical tactics: To provide students with augmented repre‐sentations that reveal the structure of problem solutions; to make mathematical symbols meaningful by giving students concrete referents for those symbols; to provide students with enriched feedback about the consequences of their mathematical operations; and to adapt instruction to the cognitive processes of the students. Weaknesses in the three systems are discussed and two general problems, called complexity trade‐off and scaffold removal, are put forward as possible explanations for why the systems are not more effective. The alternative view that mathematics is difficult because it requires abstract thinking is outlined and some of its implications discussed briefly.     

写作教学中的思维训练

写作水平的提高在很大程度上是由思维能力的强弱来决定的,本文提出应将思维训练作为写作教学的一个重点,在教学过程中渗透、强化思维训练,并以抽象思维训练、形象思维训练、发散思维训练为例,阐述了在写作教学中进行思维能力训练的方法要点,强调了思维训练要结合写作实践进行,处理好讲授写作知识与发展学生思维能力的关系.     

Characterisation of Cognitive Difficulty Level of Test Items

Abstract

The study of subjects in science and technology involves high level thinking. Student‐material match at the design stage of a curriculum refers, in most cases, to the general criteria of thinking and learning theories, such as the ability to carry out ‘formal operations’ according to Piaget. The question of relevance may arise when dealing with a specific subject matter, in this context. Checking the student‐material match through an achievement post test enables us to refer to the relevant contents.

A method is proposed to characterise a test item through a content ingredient (Number of Schemes NS required for solution) and the required learner's resources (represented by the Problem Solving Taxonomy PST level). The Cognitive Difficulty Level CDL is then defined as: CDL=NS ? CDL.

The validity of CDL as a difficulty index of a test item, has been verified in the case of teaching basic electronics at the high‐school level (tenth and eleventh grades): a decrease has been obtained in students' achievement scores with an increase in the CDL value. Two types of student populations have been involved in the study: high and low achievers. The findings indicate that at the initial stage of learning a new subject, mainly the content factor (NS) affects the difficulty level of a mental task. After the ‘transient time’ has elapsed, both factors, NS and PST (i.e. CDL) affect the cognitive difficulty level. In the later stages, when the complexity of the material increases, the effect of PST becomes most dominant.     

Understanding Imaginative Thinking During Childhood: Sociocultural Conceptions of Creativity and Imaginative Thought

Understanding imagination as both a cognitive and affective endeavor is crucial in order for educators to promote creative and imaginative thinking in informal and formal learning environments. It is the primary aim of this paper to develop the theoretical discussion of Vygotsky’s writings on young children’s imaginative abilities launched by Gajdamaschko (Teach Educ 16(1):13–22, 2005) and Lindqvist (Res J 15(2&3):245–251, 2003). This paper illustrates Vygotsky’s writings on the cognitive processes involved in children’s imagination and creativity and concludes with a discussion focused on the components of an educational environment that can either support or stifle children’s imaginative abilities. It is through this continuing discussion that, as researchers, we hope to extend and challenge current conceptions of the role of imaginative thinking in early education.     

认知水平与计算思维间的隐含关系挖掘--基于编程行为表征视角

随着人工智能时代的来临,编程教育日益受到重视。学生在编程过程中的行为,实质上反映了其对利用计算工具解决问题的认知水平,也映射出其计算思维的发展过程,挖掘三者间的隐含关系有助于通过优化编程任务设计改善对学生计算思维的培养。基于认知目标分类和计算思维三维框架构建映射关系,以Scratch可视化编程任务作为研究案例,采用编程操作视频分析与学生访谈相结合的方法,从编程行为表征的视角对认知水平与计算思维间的隐含关系进行挖掘后发现:一方面,认知水平与编程行为之间存在密切关系,知道与理解是编程行为的基础性认知,应用与分析是编程行为的核心,评价推动学生对编程行为的反思,而创造可激发编程行为产生新的作品。另一方面,在编程活动中,学生的认知水平与计算思维的发展彼此关联且相互促进,编程行为中的低阶认知目标的达成是形成计算观念的基础,编程实践引发的高阶思维认知需求可促进学生对计算思维的领悟。因此,应当遵循认知水平与计算思维的发展规律,有针对性地将面向各类认知目标的编程任务嵌入到教学设计中,方可有效实现利用编程教育对学生计算思维的培养。     

第二语言习得与双语教育最佳时机研究述评

对于儿童第二语言习得的关键期学术界尚未有定论,一般认为2岁至青春期前后特别是学前阶段是儿童学习第二语言的最佳时机。随着脑科学的发展以及对儿童认知发展规律的进一步认识,越来越多的实验研究表明在儿童早期阶段学习两种语言存在着明显的优势,更有利于儿童的语言、认知、智力、心理能力等方面的发展。在实施双语教育的地区,第二语言学习与双语教育要抓住最佳时机,家庭环境要尽早支持幼儿自然习得双语,正规学校系统要在学前阶段尽早开展双语教育。     

Parsing the notion of algebraic thinking within a cognitive perspective

There is a growing consensus that algebra is an important aspect of mathematics teaching and learning and several abilities are required in order students to have successful performance in algebra. The present study uses insights from the domain of psychology to enrich what is currently known in the domain of mathematics education about the relationship of algebraic thinking with abilities involved in fundamental cognitive processes. In total, 190 students between the ages of 13–17 years old were tested through two tests. The first test addressed four types of cognitive systems which are responsible for the representation and processing of different types of relations in the environment: the spatial-imaginal, the causal-experimental, the qualitative-analytic and the verbal-propositional. The second test addressed algebraic thinking. The results support the key role of the four types of cognitive processes in students’ algebraic thinking. The results also suggest that abilities involved in the four types of cognitive processes predict algebraic thinking abilities, irrespective of the age of the students.     

Enhancing systems‐thinking skills with modelling

Systems thinking is an essential cognitive skill that enables individuals to develop an integrative understanding of a given subject at the conceptual and systemic level. Yet, systems thinking is not usually an innate skill. Helping students develop systems‐thinking skills warrants attention from educators. This paper describes a study examining the effects of utilising systems modelling as a cognitive tool in enhancing a group of graduate students' systems‐thinking skills. A significant improvement was observed in the systems‐thinking practises of the students. A theoretical rationale for enhancing systems‐thinking skills with modelling and the results of the study will be discussed.