THE FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTS OF A PARENT‐FACILITATED SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM ON SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS

Due to impairments in social interactions and communication, children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have a need for effective social skills training programs. However, many programs fail due to a lack of acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of target skills. The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and outcomes of a parent‐facilitated social skills training program, designed to overcome the shortcomings of acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of other programs for children with ASD. Participants in the current study included 5 children with ASD and their parents, recruited from a western state. This study expands previous research by training parents in implementation of a social skills training program comprising several evidence‐based practices. The results of the parent‐facilitated intervention are provided, and implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

THE USE OF EVIDENCED‐BASED PRACTICES IN THE PROVISION OF SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER AMONG SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

This study aimed to explore school psychologists’ use of evidence‐based practices (EBP), specifically in the area of social skills training, for students with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 220 school psychologists practicing in public school settings who provided social skills training to students with ASD. Participants were recruited through e‐mail solicitations and completed surveys administered on‐line. Results indicated that 47% of the participants reported that their graduate program did not provide courses including content addressing social skills training for students with ASD, and 58% did not receive training on the topic during their internship. The most and least frequently endorsed EBP reported were the provision of clear and measurable treatment objectives and regular communication with parents, respectively. Greater use of EBP was reported when school districts perceived implementing EBP as important. Implications of findings for training programs of school psychologists, school districts, and individual school psychologists are discussed, as well as implications for future research.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF ITEM SAMPLING AND EXAMINEE SAMPLING FOR ESTIMATING TEST NORMS

An empirical comparison of the accuracy of item sampling and examinee sampling in estimating norm statistics. Item samples were composed of 3, 6, or 12 items selected from a total test of 50 multiple-choice vocabulary questions. Overall, the study findings provided empirical evidence that item sampling is approximately as effective as examinee sampling for estimating the population mean and standard deviation. Contradictory trends occurred for lower ability and higher ability student populations in accuracy of estimated means and standard deviations when the number of items administered increased from 3 to 6 to 12. The findings from this study indicate that the variation of sequences of items occurring in item sampling need not have a significant affect on test performance.     

THE SECRET AGENT SOCIETY SOCIAL SKILLS PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN WITH HIGH‐FUNCTIONING AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS: A COMPARISON OF TWO SCHOOL VARIANTS

School is often considered an ideal setting for child social skills training due to the opportunities it provides for skills teaching, modeling, and practice. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of two variants of the Secret Agent Society social skills program for children with high‐functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) in a mainstream school context. Sixty‐nine students aged 7–12 took part in one of two different 10‐week versions of the program (structured versus unstructured) to determine their relative effectiveness. Results suggested that both program variants led to improvements in emotion regulation abilities, social skills, and behavior at school and home, maintained at 6‐week follow‐up. However, the structured intervention generally led to superior treatment outcomes. These results suggest that improvements in social–emotional functioning can be achieved for students with HFASD through time‐limited school‐based interventions. Limitations of this study and directions for future research are discussed.     

A COMPARISON OF EXAMINEE SAMPLING AND MULTIPLE MATRIX SAMPLING IN TEST DEVELOPMENT

For the purpose of obtaining data to use in test development, multiple matrix sampling (MMS) plans were compared to examinee sampling plans. Data were simulated for examinees, sampled from a population with a normal distribution of ability, responding to items selected from an item universe. Three item universes were considered: one that would produce a normal distribution of test scores, one a moderately platykurtic distribution, and one a very platykurtic distribution. When comparing sampling plans, total numbers of observations were held constant. No differences were found among plans in estimating item difficulty. Examinee sampling produced better estimates of item discrimination, test reliability, and test validity. As total number of observations increased, estimates improved considerably, especially for those MMS plans with larger subtest sizes. Larger numbers of observations were needed for tests designed to produce a normal distribution of test scores. With an adequate number of observations, MMS is seen as an alternative to examinee sampling in test development.     

THE LEARNING AND RETENTION OF TEACHING SKILLS BY OLDER ADULTS: A TIME SERIES ANALYSIS

Comparative analysis of time series data (T1 = preprogram; T2 = postpro‐gram; T3 = 6‐month followup) collected for the first year class of an older adult teacher training program (N = 35; mean age = 69.1 years) documents that the elderly learn and retain materials learned at different rates. Variables such as age, sex, teaching experience, education, and race/ethnicity all potentially play a role in differentiating the learning process. Evaluation results further confirm that the initial acquisition of leadership skills by older adults is no guarantee that those skills will be maintained successfully over time. There may also be a false sense of confidence in some older learners that is gained simply by their having successfully completed an organized course of training. Study findings lead to recommendations emphasizing the importance of promoting resilient skills capacity in the teaching domain by older adults by means of a variety of skills‐preservation program techniques inlcuding the provision of educational seminars, “retooling” sessions, and reunion programs subsequent to the offering of the initial teacher training program.     

THE POWER OF SOCIAL AND MOTIVATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR TEST‐ANXIOUS ADOLESCENTS’ ACADEMIC SELF‐REGULATION

Based on cognitive evaluation theory (CET) and organismic integration theory (OIT) – both sub‐theories of self‐determination theory (SDT) – the present study examined whether the academic self‐regulation of youth with test anxiety can be strengthened through social and motivational relationships with peers and teachers. This study employed a large sample (N = 1088; MAge = 13.7) of early adolescents from secondary schools in Brandenburg, Germany. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the proposed associations. The results revealed a negative association between test anxiety and intrinsic motivation as well as test anxiety and identified regulation, which was fully mediated by teachers as positive motivators. Furthermore, both teachers as positive motivators as well as the teacher‐student relationship were found to be strong predictors of the self‐determined aspects of academic self‐regulation. Additionally, both peers as positive motivators and the student‐student relationship are essential for external self‐regulation.     

MANUALIZATION,FEASIBILITY, AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SCHOOL‐BASED SOCIAL COMPETENCE INTERVENTION FOR ADOLESCENTS (SCI‐A)

Despite the movement toward identification of evidence‐based practices (EBPs), there is a discrepancy in the availability of school‐based EBPs targeting the unique needs of students with high functioning forms of autism and related social needs. Based on calls for systematic intervention development and evaluation processes, the current study describes the manualization, feasibility, and effectiveness testing of the school‐based Social Competence Intervention for Adolescents (SCI‐A) curriculum. School personnel were trained to implement SCI‐A to a targeted student population. Fidelity and social validity data indicated curriculum feasibility and acceptability within secondary school settings. Student social functioning, executive functioning, and theory of mind demonstrated postintervention gains with moderate effect sizes. Results are promising for SCI‐A's continued positive trajectory within the phases of EBP evaluation research. Challenges for intervention effectiveness testing within schools and future considerations for evaluating EBPs are discussed.     

KINDERGARTEN SOCIAL WITHDRAWAL AND READING ACHIEVEMENT: A CROSS‐LAGGED PATH MODEL FOR AT‐RISK LEARNERS

The association between social withdrawal, school adjustment, and academic functioning in preschool and school entry is well‐established. Children who experience social withdrawal in primary grades are at risk for decreased academic performance. The bidirectional relationships among early literacy and social withdrawal in primary grades have not been examined to date. The present study used a cross‐lagged model to examine the relationship between social withdrawal and early literacy skills from kindergarten to second grade (N = 137). Results indicated that kindergarten social withdrawal predicted second grade reading achievement after controlling for prior literacy skill acquisition. Bidirectional influence hypotheses were not confirmed in the present study.     

SUPPORT NEEDS OF CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES: AGE‐RELATED IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT

The Supports Intensity Scale–Children's Version (SIS‐C) was developed to assess the support needs of children and youth aged 5 to 16 years with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Data from the standardization sample of the SIS‐C were analyzed to evaluate the impact of the age cohorts (5–6, 7–8, 9–10, 11–12, 13–14, and 15–16 years) used to stratify the sample on the measurement model, as well as the latent means, standard deviations, and correlations. The findings confirmed measurement invariance across age cohorts, but suggested that at the latent level, younger children, generally, have more intensive support needs and that as students with intellectual disability age, their support needs decrease. In addition, the 15‐ to 16‐year‐old cohort displayed differences in terms of the strength of correlations between support need domains, with stronger correlations than the other age groups. Implications for future research and practice are described.     

PERCEIVED SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND SCIENCE LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR TAIWANESE EIGHTH GRADERS: STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING WITH A COMPLEX SAMPLING CONSIDERATION

Based on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 2007 study and a follow-up national survey, data for 3,901 Taiwanese grade 8 students were analyzed using structural equation modeling to confirm a social-relation-based affection-driven model (SRAM). SRAM hypothesized relationships among students’ perceived social relationships in science class and affective and cognitive learning outcomes to be examined. Furthermore, the path coefficients of SRAM for high- and low-achieving subgroups were compared. Given the 2-stage stratified clustering design for sampling, jackknife replications were conducted to estimate the sampling errors for all coefficients in SRAM. Results suggested that both perceived teacher–student relationships (PTSR) and perceived peer relationships (PPR) exert significant positive effects on students’ self-confidence in learning science (SCS) and on their positive attitude toward science (PATS). These affective learning outcomes (SCS and PATS) were found to play a significant role in mediating the perceived social relationships (PTSR and PPR) and science achievement. Further results regarding the differences in SRAM model fit between high- and low-achieving students are discussed, as are the educational and methodological implications of this study.     

PRESERVICE TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TRAINING: A SURVEY OF SELF‐REPORTED TRAINING EXPERIENCES,CONTENT COVERAGE,AND PREPAREDNESS

Many teachers report that their preservice training in classroom management was inadequate or ineffective, but little is known about the types of training they receive. In this exploratory study, 157 preservice teachers from throughout the United States were surveyed about the training sources through which they obtained knowledge and skills in classroom management as well as the content and their attitudes toward the training. A majority of students took stand‐alone courses in classroom management, which were reported to provide the most comprehensive content, but the most frequently reported sources were mentoring and fieldwork. Participants reported that a combination of didactic coursework and hands‐on training were associated with the highest sense of preparedness to use classroom management strategies. Implications for future research and school psychological services are discussed.     

SOCIAL COMPARISON IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION: AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO FRAMES OF REFERENCE AND ENGAGEMENT,DISAFFECTION, AND PHYSICAL SELF‐CONCEPT

Drawing from theory and research into social comparison processes, the present study sought to determine children's motives for comparison in addition to the coexistence of class and individual comparisons in school physical education. The main and interactive effects of these types of comparisons were examined in relation to pupils’ physical self‐concept, as well as self‐reported behavioral engagement and disaffection in class. In total, 545 children (M_age = 13.89 years, SD = 1.57 years) from two schools in England completed the questionnaire. Moderated hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that the higher a child's perception of his or her ability was compared with his or her classmates, the greater the level of engagement and physical self‐concept and the lower the level of disaffection. Interaction analysis showed that when perceived ability with reference to the class was low, a downward comparison with an individual enhanced engagement, but this was not the case when perceived ability was high. Findings suggest that further research into social comparison processes in this setting is warranted.     

NEIGHBORHOOD SOCIOECONOMIC WELL‐BEING,HOME LITERACY,AND EARLY LITERACY SKILLS OF AT‐RISK PRESCHOOLERS

In response to growing research and policy interest in the developmental contexts of early literacy, this study examined relations between neighborhood socioeconomic well‐being, home literacy (parent–child shared reading and number of books at home), and directly assessed early literacy outcomes among 551 Head Start students in the fall of preschool. In Structural Equation Models, neighborhood socioeconomic well‐being predicted home literacy, which in turn predicted early literacy (a latent variable derived from receptive vocabulary, letter‐word identification, and concepts about print). Implications for future research concerning parent involvement at home in the context of neighborhoods and the early literacy of at‐risk preschoolers is discussed.     

USE OF CRITICAL INCIDENTS FOR PLANNING,IMPLEMENTING, AND EVALUATING A TRAINING PROGRAM FOR FOSTER GRANDPARENTS

The authors report the planning, implementation, and evaluation of a training program for foster grandparents employed at a residential diagnostic and treatment center for disturbed children and youth. The training needs were assessed by task and performance analysis procedures, including the use of critical incident technique. A scoring procedure derived values for various responses to a set of problem situations presented to each foster grandparent. The training objectives focused on the role of the foster grandparents in helping their charges to develop socially acceptable behavior. A cognitive problem‐solving strategy was taught by use primarily of role‐modeling and role‐playing methods. The effectiveness of training was evaluated by comparing pretraining scores on a problem situation test with posttraining scores. Foster grandparents who had been highly rated by supervisors on an independent criterion improved with training; the others did not.     

A COMPARISON OF THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF TWO METHODS FOR ASSESSING PARTIAL KNOWLEDGE ON A MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST

Differential weighting of response alternatives and confidence testing have been proposed as ways to assess partial knowledge on multiple-choice tests. 211 students in an educational measurement course took their midterm examination under one of three procedures. Results from those students administered the test under conventional directions provided a baseline for comparing, in terms of reliability and validity, the results from students who took the test under the differential weighting of response alternatives or the confidence testing instructions. Reliability was estimated by the split-half technique. Validity was estimated by correlating midterm test scores with scores on a final examination. This investigation provides some support for the contention that validity can be improved using more sophisticated testing techniques. Suggestions for the conduct of more definitive studies were offered.     

上市公司高管股权激励的影响因素及其效果的文献综述

在20世纪50年代股权激励就开始得到关注,各个学者从不同的角度对其进行深入讨论。近些年,国内学者在借鉴西方观点的基础上,结合国内实际情况进行了股权激励探讨。本文以文献综述的形式,通过对国内外相关理论进行了梳理与介绍,对股权激励的因素和实施效果进行论述,希望从中可以得到一些启示和结论。