The Dutch gender gap in mathematics: Small for achievement, substantial for beliefs and attitudes

In general, studies on gender and mathematics show that the advantage held by boys over girls in mathematics achievement has diminished markedly over the last 40 years. Some researchers even argue that gender differences in mathematics achievement are no longer a relevant issue. However, the results of the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study of 2003 (TIMSS-2003), as well as the participation rates of girls in (advanced) mathematics courses, show that in some countries, such as the Netherlands, gender equity in mathematics is still far from a reality. Research on gender and mathematics is often limited to the relationship between gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics and gender differences in mathematics achievement. In school effectiveness research, theories and empirical evidence emphasize the importance of certain school and class characteristics (e.g., strong educational leadership, safe and orderly learning climate) for achievement and attitudes. However, there is little information available at to whether these factors have the same or a different influence on the achievement of girls and boys. This study used the Dutch data from TIMSS-2003 to explore the relationship between school- and class characteristics and the mathematics achievement and attitudes for both girls and boys in Grade 4 of the primary school. The explorations documented in this paper were guided by a conceptual model of concentric circles and involved multilevel analyses. Interaction effects with gender were assessed for each influencing factor that turned out to have a significant effect. The results of these analyses provide additional insight into the influence that non-school-related and school-related factors have on the mathematics achievement and attitudes of girls and boys.     

Gender equity in mathematical achievement: the case of China

Gender differences in achievement in mathematics, a traditionally male-stereotyped subject, have long been a concern for many educators around the world. Gender differences in mathematical achievement have decreased in recent decades, especially in Western countries, and become small or insignificant in large-scale tests, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The situation in China has not yet been studied. The recent PISA report lists China B-S-J-G (representing Beijing–Shanghai–Jiangsu–Guangdong) as an educational system with no significant gender difference in mathematical achievement. Based on a secondary analysis of PISA 2015 mathematics data from China B-S-J-G, this study more deeply scrutinized gender differences in Chinese students’ mathematical performance, emphasizing societal factors, namely students’ socioeconomic status, school level, school type, school location, and socioeconomic status at school level. This analysis revealed important differences within the overall picture. Most importantly, significantly more boys than girls scored in the top tier of mathematics achievement. At the lower- and upper-secondary school levels, boys performed significantly better than girls, with the achievement difference increasing at the upper-secondary level. Furthermore, this study found that, on average, Chinese (B-S-J-G) girls achieved significantly lower average scores on the PISA 2015 mathematics test than boys in the same school. Overall, students’ individual characteristics and school characteristics need to be separated and both taken into account to examine the role of gender in mathematical achievement, which has not been thoroughly investigated in the past.     

School Differences in Producing Gender‐Related Subject Choices

Gender differences in mathematics are well‐documented. This article reports the results of a longitudinal study on the development of mathematics achievement and choice behaviour of both boys and girls between 12 and 15 years of age in higher general secondary education. First of all, it is shown that there are differences in the development of mathematics achievement between schools. There are, however, no gender‐related differences between schools in these development patterns. The main issue is that differences in choice behaviour between boys and girls can only partially be explained by differences in mathematics achievement. It therefore seems worthwhile to assess the role of schools in this process. Results indicate that schools neither differ in gender differences in choice behaviour, nor in their potential to transform initial achievement differences between boys and girls into an inclination to choose mathematics as a final examination subject. In other words: differential school effects in terms of gender‐specific school effects could not be demonstrated.     

高中男女生数学解题思维定势的特点与差异调查

数学解题思维定势是指解题者在解决数学问题的思维过程中表现出来的思维的定向预备状态，同中学生的数学解题思维过程中普遍存在各式各样的思维定势，这些思维定势的总体特点是：以技能性定势，知识性定势为主，以策略性定势为辅，具有显著的迁移性，女生的数学解题思维定势中知识性定势，技能性定势成分相对多于男生，而策略性定势成分则少于男生，在数学教学中，应“精加工”陈述性知识，注重变式训练，加强数学思想方法的教学。     

Girls’ participation in post‐16 mathematics: a view from pupils in Wales

A number of studies have highlighted that anxiety, confidence and enjoyment are influential factors on students’ participation in mathematics, and in particular girls’ participation. This paper, based upon data collected as part of a PhD thesis, examines the effect of these influences on pupil choices within different types of secondary schools in Wales and, rather interestingly, the findings show that such factors are significantly less marked in one category of school in Wales. Girls were more likely than boys to report feelings of anxiety and a lack of confidence in mathematics in all schools in Wales, apart from in Language Streamed schools. Furthermore, students in the Language Streamed schools were most likely to enjoy mathematics compared to pupils in other schools in Wales. Reasons for such findings are related to certain school practices. Smaller classes, retaining a teacher and teacher gender all appear to have positive benefits on girls’ and boys’ attitudes towards mathematics.     

Interesting,but Less Interested: Gender Differences and Similarities in Mathematics Interest

The purpose of the present study was to examine gender differences in mathematics interest. In a sample of middle school students (N?=?366), we examined mathematics interest as a trait (i.e., individual interest) and as a current state (i.e., situational interest) during a learning activity in mathematics. Assessment of perceived competence, performance, and effort during learning was also included. Results revealed a significant difference between boys and girls in their ratings of individual interest, but not in the current experience of situational interest. Furthermore, boys and girls did not differ in performance during learning, but girls invested significantly more effort than boys. Results and their implications are discussed in relation to interest development, gender differences, and subjective beliefs.     

A comparison of performance and attitudes in mathematics amongst the ‘gifted’. Are boys better at mathematics or do they just think they are?

This paper explores gender differential performance in ‘gifted and talented’ 9‐ and 13‐year‐olds in a mathematics assessment in England. Boys’ and girls’ attitudes to mathematics and their views about which gender is better at mathematics are also considered. The study employs the use of a matched sample of boys and girls so that school, age and previous achievement in mathematics can be controlled whilst exploring performance on World Class Test items. The main result of this research was that there was no significant gender difference in performance for the 9‐ or the 13‐year‐olds. However, attitudinal differences were found, including a seemingly commonly held stereotypical view of mathematics as a boys’ subject. These results are important since the uptake of higher level mathematically‐based courses by girls is poor. Further findings reveal that where ‘gifted’ girls perform as well as ‘gifted’ boys, their confidence in the subject is lower than their performance might suggest. This work is also discussed in the light of related research findings and in relation to stereotype threat theory.     

Students' Gender Stereotypes about Running in Schools

Two hundred forty-six students (132 boys, 114 girls) were tracked from fifth to eighth grades, and changes in gender stereotypes about running as a male sport, running performance, interest in running, and intention for future running participation were assessed. Results revealed that neither sex held gender stereotypes about running as a male sport and students were less likely to hold such stereotypes as they progressed through school. Compared to girls, boys were more likely to perceive running to be more appropriate for boys. Girls with higher gender stereotyping mean scores reported lower interest in running and intentions for future running participation, while boys recording increases in running stereotyping were more likely to retain interest in running and future running participation. This study provides empirical documentation of running as a gender-neutral activity over time in a physical education/athletic setting. From the expectancy-value lens, including gender-neutral activities such as running may encourage interest and participation levels among boys and girls alike.     

Gender differences in mathematics achievement: an investigation of gender differences by item difficulty interactions

This paper presents findings from research exploring gender by item difficulty interaction on mathematics test scores in Cyprus. Data steamed from 2 longitudinal studies with 4 different age groups of primary school students. The hypothesis that boys tended to outperform girls on the hardest items and girls tended to outperform boys on the easiest items was generally supported for each year group. The effect of social class was also examined. For each social class, there was a correlation between the item difficulty differences estimated on girls and boys separately and the difficulty of the item estimated on the whole sample. It is claimed that in understanding gender differences in mathematics, item difficulty should be treated as an independent variable. Suggestions for further studies are provided, and implications for the development of assessment policy in mathematics are drawn.     

Advanced mathematics course-taking: A focus on gender equifinality

High school mathematics achievement predicts future success. Potentially different factors that lead to success for boys versus girls, termed equifinality, are not well understood. Such factors are needed to inform interventions to increase numbers of students taking advanced mathematics courses and going on into science and mathematics careers. With 16,373 diverse tenth grade participants of the 2002 Education Longitudinal Study, we used multi-group logistic regression modeling to investigate advanced mathematics course selection from a social cognitive perspective, testing relations separately by gender. Girls took advanced mathematics courses at significantly higher rates than males. Family background and cognitive factors were related to advanced mathematics coursetaking for both groups. Supporting the equifinality hypothesis, father's expectation, parent communication, and peer academic value were significant for girls yet mother's expectation and parent participation were significant for boys. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

中学生友谊质量特点研究

以950名中学生为被试,采用友谊质量问卷,对从初一到高三的六个年级中学生的友谊质量的特点进行横断研究。结果发现,中学生友谊质量多个维度的发展存在显著的性别和年级差异。初中二年级和高中三年级女生的冲突解决能力均显著地高于男生。     

Gendered pathways to educational aspirations: The role of academic self-concept,school burnout,achievement and interest in mathematics and reading

The aim of this study was to examine lower secondary school students' (N = 1152) pathways to educational aspirations. The study used multi-group structural equation modelling to investigate the predictions of academic self-concept, school burnout, achievement, and interest in mathematics and reading, in relation to educational aspirations for boys and girls. While certain factors were influential for students' academic aspirations irrespective of gender, some interesting differences also emerged. Academic self-concept and interest in reading predicted educational aspirations for both groups. However, gendered pathways emerged in how achievement and interest in mathematics predicted educational aspirations. Interest in mathematics predicted girls’ educational aspirations, whereas mathematics achievement was a significant predictor for boys. School burnout had negative indirect effects through interest in reading and mathematics in both groups, but for girls, there was also a direct positive effect on educational aspirations.     

An assessment of the impact of science experiences on the career choices of male and female biology students

Earlier studies of gender differences in science courses and careers have identified three probable causes: numbers of mathematics courses, level of science achievement, and attitudes toward science. Recently, differential science experiences have been suggested as a factor contributing to the gender differences found in science interest and achievement. A study of science activities, both within and outside of school, has been conducted. Although both boys and girls report similar classroom experiences, boys more often than girls report extracurricular science activities. The findings suggest that equal experiences within science classrooms do not overcome the advantage that boys hold due to more extracurricular science activities. Increased experiences in science, however, have led to more positive attitudes toward science among the girls in this study.     

The Story of Phoenix Quest: How girls respond to a prototype language and mathematics computer game

This article describes a case study of six girls' experiences with the Phoenix Quest computer game. In addition to the case study, a supplementary large-scale study of the reactions of both boys and girls to the same computer game was conducted for comparative analysis. Phoenix Quest (PQ) was designed not only to encourage children to explore language and mathematics, but also to offer game features that would especially appeal to girls. Participants in the case study were given opportunities to become acquainted with PQ for several months before being observed and interviewed. Four issues that emerged as being important to the participants were (a) presentation of the story in a non-linear format, (b) appreciation for the problem-solving elements of PQ, (c) identification with the main character (female), and (d) lack of awareness of the mathematics embedded within the game. The findings provided evidence that PQ appealed to girls because the protagonist was of their age and gender, and because the puzzles and searches were engaging throughout the game. Some aspects of the game, however, were less successful; for instance, the non-linear story format was disconcerting to all but one of the participants, and only one student identified the mathematics in the game structure. The large-scale study involved 41 boys and 57 girls, aged 8-12, from four junior school classes (Grades 4, 5 and 6). The aggregate data collected showed that more girls than boys used the postcard-writing feature of PQ and appreciated following the adventures of a female protagonist. More boys than girls were reported to offer advice to other students, discuss the game during their free time, and observe others playing the game. Some boys even formed groups to exchange information and game-playing strategies. Also, more boys than girls recognised the mathematics embedded within the game. Although these studies did not focus on teacher-student interaction, the finding that more than 25% of participating students were not able to identify the mathematics embedded in PQ, supports supplementary instruction on the part of a teacher as a requirement for making the mathematics more salient. Further research to address this issue is strongly recommended. Both the case study and the large-scale study revealed that among computer games, PQ's uncommon approach of celebrating and challenging a female protagonist is important to girls. This does not suggest that the presentation of a female protagonist will discourage boys from playing and enjoying the game. On the contrary, our findings showed that boys were also engaged by PQ, a game that encourages cooperative play and group problem-solving. In the realm of computer games, gender identification plays a key role, in first capturing the attention of girls, and then sustaining their interest, enjoyment and participation.     

Gender,science choice and achievement: a Maltese perspective

Drawing on a number of studies, this paper explores gender differentials in the choice of science subjects at secondary school level, factors influencing choice, differences in achievement and recruitment to science courses at a higher level in the particular educational context of the Maltese Islands. In this context all secondary schools are single‐sex, the state system is highly centralized, selection and streaming are widely practised, a high proportion of students (25%) attend private schools, and physics is compulsory. The results show that: more girls than boys study physics and biology at the lower secondary level (ages 11‐16); more boys study chemistry; achievement at this level is on a par in biology and chemistry; girls achieve slightly lower in physics. At the upper secondary level (ages 16‐18), almost equal numbers of boys and girls study biology and chemistry but boys predominate in physics. Girls avoid the option of physics and mathematics, a popular choice with boys. Consequently, at tertiary level very few girls opt for courses in engineering and prefer to subscribe to courses relating to medicine.     

Girls and mathematics —A “hopeless” issue? A control-value approach to gender differences in emotions towards mathematics

This study analyzed gender differences in achievement emotions in the domain of mathematics. Based on Pekrun’s (2000, 2006) controlvalue theory of achievement emotions, we hypothesized that there are gender differences in mathematics emotions due to the students’ different levels of control and value beliefs in mathematics, even when controlling for prior achievement. The structural relationships between prior achievement, control and value beliefs, and emotions were assumed to be invariant across girls and boys in spite of hypothesized mean level differences of beliefs and emotions across genders. The emotions and beliefs of 1,036 male and 1,017 female 5th grade students were assessed by self-report measures, and their prior mathematics achievement was assessed by academic grades. Even though girls and boys had received similar grades in mathematics, girls reported significantly less enjoyment and pride than boys, but more anxiety, hopelessness and shame. Findings suggested that the female emotional pattern was due to the girls’ low competence beliefs and domain value of mathematics, combined with their high subjective values of achievement in mathematics. Multiple-group comparisons confirmed that the structural relationships between variables were largely invariant across the genders.     

Ethnic and gender differences in mathematics achievement and in dispositions towards the study of mathematics

The study examined the effects of gender and ethnicity on mathematics achievement on a national test and on dispositions (attitudes, perceived parental expectations, effort, and help) towards the study of mathematics of a representative sample of Jewish and Arab eighth graders in Israel. The results indicated a large ethnic gap in achievement in favor of the Jewish students. Significant gender–ethnicity interactions emerged whereby Arab girls, compared to Arab boys, attempted more items on the test. In the Jewish sample, either the reverse held true or there were no significant differences between the sexes. Arab girls also reported receiving less help in doing mathematics homework and perceived their parents' expectations for their success in mathematics as higher than did Arab boys. Jewish girls, on the other hand, perceived their parents' expectations as lower and reported investigating more effort in coping with mathematics tasks and using more supporting tools than did Jewish boys. The results were discussed in light of cultural differences between Jews and Arabs in Israeli society and their respective learning environments.     

Achievement,Gender and the Single-Sex/Coed Debate

This paper explores the gender differences in achievements at a variety of levels in secondary schools in New Zealand. Gender differences are shown in relation to English, mathematics and science, but the pattern is not consistent across year levels in the senior school. The relative achievements of girls in single-sex and coeducational schools are explored in detail, with careful controls for the student population differences at the two types of school. When such controls are exercised, the apparent differences between the two types of school reduce to non-significance. Data from a longitudinal study of 37 schools and from the Ministry of Education national database are used.     

Academic self-concept and causal attributions for success and failure amongst elementary school children

A great deal of research shows that the way in which children attribute causes to their successes and failures in school has implications for the development of their academic self-concept (ASC). The most common attributions are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. The present study asked 68 elementary school children aged seven to eight years how they explained their successes and failures in school subjects. The aim of the study was to examine whether there were gender differences in the children’s responses which might indicate differences in ASCs or in their explanations for the causes of success or failure. Data were collected via quantitative questionnaires. Results showed no gender differences in ASC but, within the group, boys were more likely to attribute their success to high ability; on the other hand girls were more likely to attribute their failures to low ability or the difficulty level of task. This suggests that boys are more likely than girls to provide positive, self-enhancing reasons for their success while girls are more likely than boys to provide negative, self-deprecating reasons for their failures.     

不同性别儿童数学学习情感发展差异研究

文章研究了小学儿童数学学习的情感发展特征,采用自编"儿童数学学习情感发展水平"量表,以梅州市三所小学1-6年级共860名学生为被试,考察男女生数学学习情感发展水平的差异。结果表明:(1)小学男、女生的数学学习情感发展水平存在极显著差异,女生数学学习情感发展水平明显比男生高。(2)除师生关系水平存在显著的性别差异,女生比男生与老师有更良好的师生关系外,儿童数学学习情感的其他因素,男、女几乎没有不同。(3)低年级儿童的数学学习情感发展水平存在显著的性别差异,中、高年级儿童不存在显著的性别差异,数学学习情感发展水平随年级升高而降低,女生数学学习情感发展水平变化较大,男生则相对平稳。