Schooling of girls and boys in a West African country: the effects of parental education,income, and household structure

This study investigates gender differences in the determinants of several schooling indicators in Conakry, Guinea, using ordered and binary probit models incorporating household-level random effects. Such indicators include grade attainment, current enrollment, and withdrawal from school. The survey, which was conducted on 1725 households, contains detailed information on a wide range of socioeconomic factors such as education, labor force activity and earnings, assets and health. Results indicate that increases in household income lead to greater investments in the schooling of girls than in the schooling of boys. Meanwhile, improvements in the education of fathers raise the schooling of both sons and daughters, while the education of mothers only has a significant impact on the schooling of daughters. These estimates show differences in maternal and paternal preferences for schooling daughters relative to sons. Therefore, the importance of gender, parental education, and household income and composition affect the education of children. However, findings also show that education for girls is unnecessary since they only need to work at home. Moreover, policies that raise household incomes will increase gender equity in schooling, which will also depend on whether and how these policies change the opportunity costs of girls and boys and the labor market returns to female and male schooling.     

教育过程公平的性别维度

教育过程性别公平是指从性别的维度审视教育内部的公平问题,使每一个学生不因具有某一生理性别而使其发展受到影响。教育过程的性别公平不只是关注女生的发展,而是同时关注男生与女生的发展。意志自由与选择自由是教育过程性别公平的首要原则;教育过程性别公平的最终目标是同时致力于女生与男生的最优发展,而不是致力于教育结果的性别均衡;价值多元是实现教育过程性别公平的关键;教育过程性别公平的真正实现必须同时促进四种性别认知的转变。     

Single‐sex schooling: is it simply a ‘class act’?

The current debate about boys education risks taking us back decades in terms of understanding the significance of gender in relation to education. Of particular concern here is the tendency within such debates to rely on dichotomous understandings of gender which reinscribe essentialist understandings of both ‘girls’ and ‘boys’. In this way, the so‐called gender wars construct a climate whereby difference between the categories obfuscates difference within each. Here this issue is explored most specifically in relation to access to higher education and the possible impact of single‐sex schooling. Current debates surrounding boys' experience of schooling have refreshed interest in the possible benefits of single‐sex education, particularly for boys. Schools are establishing single‐sex classes for boys and in some cases parallel education (the provision of single‐sex facilities for girls and boys at the same campus) is being promoted as a way forward. In this paper we examine data from Australia's largest and most diverse university in order to explore the relationship between single‐sex schooling and access to higher education in ways which account for difference based primarily on school sector and socio‐economic status. In these terms, if single‐sex schooling is beneficial for boys we need to consider which boys are benefiting and at whose expense.     

The three duties of the historian of education

The origins of modern schooling in early nineteenth-century Africa have been poorly researched. Moreover, histories of education in Africa have focused largely on the education of boys. Little attention has been paid to girls’ schooling or to the missionary women who sought to construct a new feminine Christian identity for African girls. In the absence of personal accounts of African girls’ schooling from that period, this paper draws on a slim body of 71 letters written by women and girls associated with one British mission society in Sierra Leone between 1804 and 1826 to suggest a fluid and at times contradictory construction of gender and racial identity, which sits at odds with the ideology of domestic femininity that the missionaries sought to impart through girls’ schooling. The handful of letters written by African women and girls also casts doubt on the assumed subservience of black subjects to white officialdom.     

School resources and the gender reading literacy gap in South African schools

The importance of reading literacy as a foundation for academic success is widely acknowledged. What is less well understood is why gender patterns in reading literacy emerge so early and continue throughout learners’ educational careers. This paper adds to this literature by investigating the gender patterns of reading literacy (why girls outperform boys) in South African primary schools and whether changes in the schooling system can result in favourable changes in this gender reading gap. Compatible with international trends, girls in primary schools were significantly better readers than boys during the period of investigation. We found strong links between material and human resources and achievement in reading. The link between increased resource availability and improved educational outcomes was stronger for girls than for boys and therefore increased the female academic advantage. This finding remained consistent across socioeconomic levels. The implication is that either the school resources available in South African primary schools are more suitable for teaching girls how to read or that girls appear to be able to make use of the available resources more effectively to improve reading. Policy interpretations are discussed in the context of improved resourcing of schools.     

Gender Differences,Family and Psychological Factors Affecting School Performance in Greek Secondary School Students

High rates of school failure have been reported for secondary school students, with boys presenting more schooling difficulties. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between school performance and family and psychological factors. A sample of 1315 male and female secondary school students was recruited from 54 classes randomly selected out of a total of 534 classes in the Greek region of East Macedonia and Thrace. School performance was measured dichotomously according to the final school results (pass or fail). Family and sociodemographic data were collected and psychological problems were measured using the Youth Self Report (YSR). Male gender, low socioeconomic status, low parental education and parental separation were all positively associated with school failure. Those who failed scored higher on the YSR problem scales than those who passed, and boys were more affected by adverse circumstances than girls. The results indicate that students, especially boys, with psychological problems and those coming from families of low socioeconomic and educational status are at high risk of school failure.     

Development of gender constancy and selective attention to same-sex models.

4 developmental levels of gender constancy were identified in 55 preschool-age children on the basis of a reproducible Guttman scale of answers to sets of questions pertaining to gender identity, gender stability over time, and gender consistency across situations. Children's developmental level of gender constancy was predictive of the amount and the proportion of time they attended to an adult male and an adult female film model. As boys developed gender constancy, their relative preference for watching the male model increased significantly; as girls developed gender constancy, their relative preference for watching the female model increased, though not significantly. At the more advanced levels of gender constancy, boys watched the male model more than did girls. It was suggested that same-sex social learning may develop as a function of children's cognitive understanding of gender as an identifiable, stable and consistent human attribute.     

Gender inequalities in primary schooling: The roles of poverty and adverse cultural practice

This paper suggests a simple model for the relationships between poverty, schooling and gender inequality. It argues that poverty—at both national and household levels—is associated with an under-enrolment of school-age children, but that the gendered outcomes of such under-enrolment are the product of cultural practice, rather than of poverty per se. Using detailed case study material from two African countries, evidence is presented to show the variety and extent of adverse cultural practice which impede the attendance and performance of girls at school, relative to boys. It follows that gender inequalities in schooling outcomes, measured in both qualitative and quantitative terms, will not necessarily be reduced as incomes rise.     

The media,marketing, and single sex schooling

The Australian media’s interest in education, as in many Anglophone countries, is frequently dominated by concerns about boys in schools. In 2002, in a country region of the Australian State of Queensland, this concern was evident in a debate on the merits of single sex schooling that took place in a small local newspaper. The debate was fuelled by the inclusion in this newspaper of an advertising brochure for an elite private girls’ school. The advertisement utilized the current concerns about boys in schools to advocate the benefits of girls’ only schools. Drawing on research that suggests that boys are a problem in school, and utilising a peculiar mix of liberal feminism alongside a neo‐liberal class politics, it implicitly denigrated the education provided by government co‐educational schools. The local government high and primary school principals, incensed at this advertisement, contacted the paper to refute many of its claims and assumptions and to assert the benefits, to both boys and girls, of their particular schools. A letters to the editor debate then followed an article representing these government school principals’ views. These letters were from two private school principals. This country newspaper thus became a medium through which various school principals engaged with the current boys’ debate, and research associated with it, in order to market their schools. This paper examines this particular newspaper debate and argues that, in the absence of nuanced, research based, and thoughtful policy responses to gender issues, many school policies on gender are being shaped through and by the media in ways that elide the complexities of the issues involved.     

Girls' Groups and Boys' Groups at a Municipal Technology Centre

This article describes the Swedish initiative of municipal technology centres from a gender point of view. These centres provide after‐school technology education for children aged 6–16. By means of an ethnographic study, the effects of the use of single‐sex groups in increasing the interest of girls and boys in technical activities have been studied at one of the centres. The importance of the gender of the teacher relative to the gender of the pupils is also considered. The results show that single‐sex groups meant different things to boys and girls, and that the teachers’ way of “doing” femininity and masculinity, respectively, in the different groups was of some importance. The results indicate that single‐sex groups alone do not break down gender barriers. However, there are lessons to be learnt from a leisure‐time activity that provides a different setting from that of single‐sex science education in ordinary schooling     

Reappraising the Apparent Underachievement of Boys at School

This article challenges two widely-held beliefs about the differences in the performance of boys and girls at school. The 'gap' between the achievement of boys and girls is not growing, and may be shrinking. The gap is not predominantly a problem of low achievement, nor is it uniformly distributed across the range of attainments. The gap, in favour of girls, mainly appears at the higher levels in any assessment. The change in understanding of the nature of the gender gap described here comes from simple methodological advances in the analysis of gendered results in examination and statutory assessments. The implications for research and policy in this area are substantial, since unless the nature of the problem is well understood research may be directed at explicating, and policy directed at ameliorating, a gender gap of a form which simply does not exist. For example, while disaffection from the process of education may be a very real problem and certainly one that is worthy of research, there is little evidence here that it is primarily a gender-related problem.     

Mental rotation performance in fourth graders: No effects of gender beliefs (yet?)

The influence of gender beliefs on cognitive task performance has been demonstrated repeatedly for adults. For children, there is evidence that gender beliefs can substantially impede or boost math performance — a task where gender differences in favour of boys declined over past decades. Therefore, we examined this phenomenon using the Mental Rotations Test (MRT), a task where gender differences still occur reliably favouring males — for adults as well as for children. A sample of 252 fourth graders, whose beliefs about spatial ability were manipulated experimentally (instructions given: boys are better, girls are better or independent of gender) had to complete the MRT. In contrast to adult's literature, children's performance did not decrease or increase as a function of instruction: boys always outperformed girls; girls not even outperformed their same-sex counterparts given the “girls better” instruction. The transfer of the conceptual approach failed — possible reasons are discussed.     

Equity Gains in Bangladesh Primary Education

Although equity is a desirable objective of any form of development intervention, including education, not many studies dwell upon this important area. Information on related trends is even more rare. This essay uses field-level data from Bangladesh to examine equity levels and trends in primary education, including enrolment and quality of learning, focusing on equity for different gender, urban or rural, economic and ethnic groups. The study shows that while some disparity between girls and boys has been eliminated, girls are still far behind boys in terms of learning achievement. Children belonging to poorer families and ethnic minority groups lag behind the respective dominant groups in terms of both enrolment and learning achievement. At the same time, there have been some improvements for hitherto excluded groups such as rural girls and children of the poor. These changes are attributed mainly to 'positive discriminatory' steps taken by the government and non-governmental organizations in favour of such groups. If this trend continues, Bangladesh can look forward to establishing itself as a more equitable society than it is now.     

Gender differences in social reputation and peer rejection at school / Diferencias de género en la reputación social y el rechazo entre iguales en la escuela

The objectives of this study are twofold: to see if gender differences in social reputation remain stable throughout schooling, and to analyse behavioural differences between boys and girls with rejected status. A sociometric test was carried out and the Allocation of Perceptive Attributes Method was applied to a sample of 777 students in the mid-cycle and upper-cycle of primary education (years three to six) and the first cycle of CSE (Compulsory Secondary Education). The results show that differences in social reputation remain stable throughout schooling, with the exception of a few trends. We also find that rejection in boys is characterized by behavioural attributes, while characteristics associated with rejection in girls seem to be more subtle. It is concluded that gender ought to be taken into account in the design and implementation of intervention programmes aimed at improving the social integration of students.     

Gender in the early years: Boys and girls in an African working class primary school

Understanding the ways in which young boys and girls give meaning to gender and sexuality is vital, and is especially significant in the light of South Africa's commitment to gender equality. Yet the, gendered cultures of young children in the early years of South African primary schools remains a, marginal concern in debate, research and interventions around gender equality in education. This, paper addresses this caveat through a small-scale qualitative study of boys and girls between the ages, of 7 and 8 years in an African working class primary school. It focuses on friendships, games, and violent gendered interactions to show how gender features in the cultural world of young children. Given that both boys and girls invest heavily in dominant gender norms, the paper argues that greater, understanding of gender identity processes in the early years of formal schooling are important in, devising strategies to end inequalities and gender violence.     

Education for Domesticity? A nineteenth‐century perspective on girls' schooling and education

This paper considers the stated purposes and practices of girls' elementary (working‐class) schooling in the nineteenth century critically to consider the role of schooling in the reproduction of gender roles. It argues that, rather than the reproduction of ‘traditional’ models of gender, the stated aim of provided schooling in this period was the cultural transformation of working‐class womanhood in ways consistent with the social and cultural ideals of industrial society. In practice, however, tensions and disjunctions between the aims and practices of schooling meant that the reproduction of gender roles via formal education was flawed, contested and of relatively little significance in its direct influence on the lives of women. The discussion is set in the context of changes in the lives and work of adult women in the period and, drawing on evidence of the different experiences of girls and women in two contrasting regions, argues that the operation of gender ideologies embedded in family, community and work place organisation was much more significant than schooling in the educative influence exerted on female choices and behaviour. This analysis is applied to the education and schooling of girls today, to argue, firstly, that the model of gender ‘equality’ supposedly implicit within the National Curriculum is in reality a reversion to ‘traditional’ definitions of gender roles and secondly, to argue that changes in the education of boys are of crucial importance in transforming the educative influence of contemporary society from androcentricity to a genuine appreciation of equality between the sexes.     

L’accès des filles à l’enseignement supérieur au Burkina Faso: choix parentaux,parcours d’étudiantes et défis

Girls’ access to higher education in Burkina Faso: parental choices, student trajectories, challenges – What motivates parents from less well-off backgrounds to invest in extended schooling for their daughters? What drives the girls from these backgrounds to stay in the school system up to university level? Many studies on Burkina Faso’s education system show that there are still disparities between girls and boys at all levels, with the gap widening as the level of studies gets higher. Under these conditions, the prospect of pursuing higher education is less certain for girls from less well-off families. Yet, girls from these backgrounds are relatively present at the University of Ouagadougou. Based on a qualitative survey of students and their parents, this article highlights the social rationale determining the specific educational trajectories of these girls. The level of schooling of the older siblings, the girl’s positon in relation to her siblings, or concern for equity are factors in some parents’ decision to enrol their daughters in school. Parents invoke several reasons to justify sending their daughters to university, one of the most frequent being the argument that their daughters faithfully help them in return. As for the students, they mention various motivations to explain why they have persisted with their schooling and university studies, often in difficult circumstances, notably the desire to help their parents. The article also highlights the importance of family support as a factor in girls attending school and university, as well as in the pursuit and success of their studies.     

Students' Gender Stereotypes about Running in Schools

Two hundred forty-six students (132 boys, 114 girls) were tracked from fifth to eighth grades, and changes in gender stereotypes about running as a male sport, running performance, interest in running, and intention for future running participation were assessed. Results revealed that neither sex held gender stereotypes about running as a male sport and students were less likely to hold such stereotypes as they progressed through school. Compared to girls, boys were more likely to perceive running to be more appropriate for boys. Girls with higher gender stereotyping mean scores reported lower interest in running and intentions for future running participation, while boys recording increases in running stereotyping were more likely to retain interest in running and future running participation. This study provides empirical documentation of running as a gender-neutral activity over time in a physical education/athletic setting. From the expectancy-value lens, including gender-neutral activities such as running may encourage interest and participation levels among boys and girls alike.     

Understanding gender differences in STEM: Evidence from college applications✰

While education levels of women have increased dramatically relative to men, women are still greatly underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) college programmes. We use unique data on preference rankings for all secondary school students who apply for college in Ireland and detailed information on school subjects and grades to decompose the sources of the gender gap in STEM. We find that, of the 22 percentage points raw gap, about 13 percentage points is explained by differential subject choices and grades in secondary school. Subject choices are more important than grades – we estimate male comparative advantage in STEM (as measured by subject grades) explains about 3 percentage points of the gender gap. Additionally, differences in overall achievement between girls and boys have a negligible effect. Strikingly, there remains a gender gap of 9 percentage points even for persons who have identical preparation at the end of secondary schooling (in terms of both subjects studied and grades achieved); however, this gap is only 4 percentage points for STEM-ready students. We find that gender gaps are smaller among high-achieving students and for students who go to school in more affluent areas. There is no gender gap in science (the large gaps are in engineering and technology), and we also find a smaller gender gap when we include nursing degrees in STEM, showing that the definition of STEM used is an important determinant of the conclusions reached.     

The pencil and the shepherd's crook. Ethnography of Maasai education

This paper aims to study the various forms of education to be found amongst the Kisongo Maasai, a pastoral population in Tanzania, both in their own right and in terms of what their encounter with one another implies. The late and rather limited development of schooling in that remote area and educational policies, as well as the pastoral way of life of this population, combine to produce a low rate of schooling: around 33% of children enrolled in primary schools versus a national rate that was twice as high in the 1990s. Few of these pupils go on to secondary schooling. The paper attempts to show the impact of primary schooling on educational practices and, more generally, on the Maasai way of life. Although they coexist side by side to a large extent, formal schooling and ‘traditional’ education—offering conflicting forms of knowledge that are conveyed in widely different fashions—usually tend to be in competition with each other, especially when it comes to pastoral education. Whereas in school all pupils are given the same instruction in a single classroom, in their communities young Maasai receive distinct kinds of education from different persons and in different places, depending on gender and age. Education for girls, non-circumcised boys and warriors is therefore orientated towards domestic labour, pastoral activities and practices associated with warriorhood. After highlighting the dynamics of interaction amongst the various forms of education, the paper focuses on Maasai perceptions of school and on the various educational strategies such perceptions generate.