Measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning: a comparison of different objective measures

Different indicators are interesting for analyzing human learning processes. Recent studies analyze learning performance in combination with cognitive load, as an indicator for learners’ invested mental effort. In order to compare different measures of cognitive load research, the present study uses three different objective methods and one subjective method, reviewing the seductive details effect in a computer-based multimedia learning instruction. An experimental two-group design (N = 50) was used, with exposure to seductive details during learning as the between group factor. Eye movements were analyzed concerning the indicated cognitive activity and cognitive load was measured by the rhythm method (Park 2010; Park and Brünken 2015), the index of cognitive activity (ICA) (Marshall 2007), as well as by subjective ratings of mental effort and task difficulty (Paas 1992). Results confirm the seductive details effect for learning success with a decrease in retention and comprehension performance, an increase in total cognitive activity indicated by eye movements and significant higher cognitive load, indicated by rhythm method. The ICA values and the subjective ratings on mental effort and task difficulty show no difference in cognitive load between the groups. The results provide evidence of the suitability of different objective measures for a direct and continuous cognitive load assessment in multimedia learning. Further, the results show the benefit of combining different methods to gain detailed insight into information processing while learning with multimedia as well as a differentiated access to the single cognitive load factors.     

Dispositional Predictors of Problem Solving in the Field of Office Work

It was investigated how domain-specific knowledge, fluid intelligence, vocational interest and work-related self-efficacy predicted domain-specific problem-solving performance in the field of office work. The participants included 100 German VET (vocational education and training) students nearing the end of a 3-year apprenticeship program as an industrial clerk (n?=?63) which usually leads to a position in office work, lower or middle management, or a similar apprenticeship program to become IT-systems management assistants (n?=?37). The participants worked on three computer-based problem scenarios dealing with operative controlling, a relevant domain to both training occupations, and completed further assessments to measure the variables listed above. Theoretical considerations, prior research and domain analyses suggested that industrial clerks would have greater domain-specific problem-solving competence (H1a) and domain-specific knowledge (H1b) than IT-systems management assistants and that domain-specific knowledge would be the strongest predictor of problem-solving competence (H2: “knowledge-is-power” hypothesis); all hypotheses were confirmed. Hypothesis 3, the “Elshout-Raaheim hypothesis,” predicts that fluid intelligence and problem-solving competence are most strongly correlated in the context of intermediate levels of task-related content knowledge, however the highest correlation was found in the group with low domain-specific knowledge. The findings suggest that intelligence plays a minor role in later stages of competence development whereas typical problem situations in later stages particularly require prior knowledge. The relationship of intelligence, knowledge and problem solving as well as limitations of the study, particularly weaknesses in the measurement of non-cognitive dispositions, are discussed.     

Effects of performance feedback valence on perceptions of invested mental effort

We investigated whether the valence of performance feedback provided after a task, would affect participants’ perceptions of how much mental effort they invested in that same task. In three experiments, we presented participants with problem-solving tasks and manipulated the presence and valence of feedback between conditions (no, positive, or negative feedback valence), prior to asking them to rate how much mental effort they invested in solving that problem. Across the three experiments–with different problem-solving tasks and participant populations–we found that subjective ratings of effort investment were significantly higher after negative than after positive feedback; ratings given without feedback fell in between. These findings show that feedback valence alters perceived effort investment (possibly via task perceptions or affect), which can be problematic when effort is measured as an indicator of cognitive load. Therefore, it seems advisable to measure mental effort directly after each task, before giving feedback on performance.     

Decreasing students’ stress through time management training: an intervention study

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a time management training program on perceived control of time and perceived stress in the context of higher education. Twenty-three undergraduate students attended a time management training intervention and reported demands, perceived stress and perceived control of time directly before 2 and 4 weeks after training. We used a “non-equivalent dependent variable design” (Cook and Campbell, Quasi-experimentation: design and analysis for field settings, p. 118, 1979) with perceived stress and perceived control of time as dependent variables, which should be influenced by the training, and demands as control variable, which should not be changed. As expected, perceived stress decreased and perceived control of time increased after training, whereas demands did not change. Therefore, time management training might be beneficial for undergraduate students’ well-being. Nevertheless, more intervention studies in this field are necessary, especially with lager samples, to contribute to more robust results and conclusions.     

The influence of self-efficacy and working memory capacity on problem-solving efficiency

We investigated the influence of self-efficacy beliefs and working memory capacity on mathematical problem-solving performance, response time, and efficiency (i.e., the ratio of problems solved correctly to time). Students completed a letter-recoding task (Experiment 1) or an operation span task (Experiment 2), rated their self-efficacy for solving mental multiplication problems, and then solved similar problems of varying complexity. We tested the motivational efficiency hypothesis, which predicted that motivational beliefs, such as self-efficacy, increase problem-solving efficiency through focused effort and strategy use. Experiments 1 and 2 reported a significant effect for self-efficacy on problem-solving performance and efficiency, but limited effects for time. A self-efficacy by working memory interaction occurred in Experiment 1, suggesting self-efficacy is beneficial as demands on working memory increase. These findings suggested that self-efficacy increased problem-solving efficiency through strategic performance rather than faster solution times, and were consistent with the motivational efficiency hypothesis.     

Differentiating Different Types of Cognitive Load: a Comparison of Different Measures

Recent studies about learning and instruction use cognitive load measurement to pay attention to the human cognitive resources and to the consumption of these resources during the learning process. In order to validate different measures of cognitive load for different cognitive load factors, the present study compares three different methods of objective cognitive load measurement and one subjective method. An experimental three-group design (N = 78) was used, with exposure to seductive details (extraneous cognitive load factor), mental animation tasks (germane cognitive load factor), or the basic learning instruction (control group). Cognitive load was measured by the rhythm method (Park and Brünken 2015), the index of cognitive activity (ICA) (Marshall 2007), and the subjective ratings of mental effort and task difficulty (Paas 1992). Eye-tracking data were used to analyze the attention allocation and as an indicator for cognitive activity. The results show a significantly higher cognitive load for the mental animation group in contrast to the control and the seductive detail group, indicated by rhythm method and subjective ratings, as well as a higher cognitive activity, indicated by eye tracking. Furthermore, the mental animation group shows significantly higher comprehension performance in contrast to the seductive detail group and significantly higher transfer performance in contrast to the control group. The ICA values showed no significant differences in cognitive load. The results provide evidence for the benefits of combining eye-tracking analysis and the results of cognitive load ratings or secondary task performance for a direct and continuous cognitive load assessment and for a differentiating access to the single cognitive load factors.     

Task motivation: Learner selection of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientations

The choice behavior of 24 college-age subjects within a computer problem-solving task was investigated as they controlled and selected problem difficulty levels which either maximized intrinsic interest or extrinsic reward. While playing a computerized version of the game Mastermind, subjects selected and attempted problems from a variety of difficulty levels during 18 15-minute sessions. Within selected periods of extrinsic reward availability, subjects were shown to select problems which were most efficiently solved, thus maximizing extrinsic reward; however, repeated task exposure produced selections that increased the task's challenge levels and its subsequent intrinsic interest. Following the removal of the extrinsic rewards, subjects immediately returned to their pre-reward intervention levels of difficulty.     

What does physiological synchrony reveal about metacognitive experiences and group performance?

There is a growing body of research on physiological synchrony (PS) in Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS). However, the current literature presents inconclusive findings about the way in which PS is reflected in cognitive and affective group processes and performance. In light of this, this study investigates the relationship between PS and metacognitive experiences (ie, judgement of confidence, task interest, task difficulty, mental effort and emotional valence) that are manifested during CPS. In addition, the study explores the association between PS and group performance. The participants were 77 university students who worked together on a computer-based CPS simulation in groups of three. Participants’ electrodermal activity (EDA) was recorded as they worked on the simulation and metacognitive experiences were measured with situated self-reports. A Multidimensional Recurrence Quantification Analysis was used to calculate the PS among the collaborators. The results show a positive relationship between continuous PS episodes and groups’ collective mental effort. No relationship was found between PS and judgement of confidence, task interest, task difficulty or emotional valence. The relationship between PS and group performance was also non-significant. The current work addresses several challenges in utilising multimodal data analytics in CPS research and discusses future research directions.     

Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research

This article revisits Paas and Van Merriënboer's (1993) Paas, F. and Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. 1993. The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors., 35: 737–743. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] measure of instructional efficiency, which can be applied by educational researchers to compare the effects of different instructional conditions on learning. This measure relied on performance and mental effort on the test, and as such gave an indication of the quality of learning outcomes. The acquisition of more (less) efficient cognitive schemata is indicated by combinations of high (low) performance and low (high) mental effort. This instructional efficiency measure has become widely adopted, but in an adapted form that incorporates mental effort invested in the learning phase instead of the test phase. This article demonstrates that the adaptation has important consequences for the construct of instructional efficiency and for the type of conclusions that can be drawn. Examples are given to illustrate the various implications of different combinations of mental effort and performance measures in the light of more contemporary developments in educational research.     

The Effectiveness of a Brief Mindfulness-Based Intervention for College Freshmen Who Have Aged out of Foster Care

This study investigated the effects of a brief meditation intervention on perceived stress, mindfulness, and sleep quality for college freshmen who have aged out of foster care. Thirty-six youth who had aged out of foster care and enrolled at a large midwestern 4-year university (n?=?16 experimental group, n?=?20 control group) participated in a study in which they were assessed three times on the dependent variables. Students also participated in a focus group after the intervention ended. Four sessions of the brief mindfulness intervention resulted in significant short-term reductions in stress levels and increases in sleep quality. Finding effective personal interventions to increase chances for college success for students with histories in foster care can also offer potential insight toward the development of educational models and resources for other vulnerable college student populations.     

Eliciting Mathematics Interest: New Directions for Context Personalization and Example Choice

Building on common assumptions in theories of interest and mathematics education, this experimental study examined the effect of context personalization based on individual preferences, group personalization, and example choice with preselected popular examples on middle school students' situational interest and performance in mathematics. Participants (N = 713) learned a principle in probability calculus in one of four instructional conditions. Individual interest and perceived competence were examined as moderators on triggered and maintained situational interest, perceived value, task effort, and performance. Results showed that example choice triggered situational interest in the learning activity and that context personalization influenced perceived value and effort, contingent on students' perceived competence and individual interest in mathematics. We discuss results in relation to previous findings on interest-based interventions and the theoretical and practical implications.     

A framework for designing and developing multimedia-based performance assessment in vocational education

The development of any assessment should be an iterative and careful process. Ideally, this process is guided by a well-defined framework (see for example Downing in: Downing and Haladyna (eds) Handbook of test development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 2006; Mislevy et al. in On the roles of task model variables in assessment design (CSE Technical Report 500), Educational Testing Service, Princeton, 1999; AERA et al. in Standards for educational and psychological testing, AERA, Washington, DC, 2004), but such a framework is not always available when the instrument to be developed is new or innovative. Frameworks for the development of traditional computer-based tests have been published and experimented with since the late 1990s, by which time CBT had already existed for more than a decade. In an earlier empirical pilot study, we described a new type of assessment for Dutch vocational education, called multimedia-based performance assessment (MBPA) (self-revealing reference 2014). This CBT uses multiple media formats and interactive tasks to measure skills that are currently measured by performance-based assessment. In conducting that pilot study, deficits in the existing literature made it difficult to ground all developmental steps in sound scientific theory. To remedy those deficits, this article presents and validates a framework for the design and development of MBPA, combining a search of the relevant literature from several subfields of educational assessment and consultation with assessment experts. The framework unites assessment development and multimedia development theory, focus solely on vocational education, and answers the call for a framework from the scientific community. The first step in validating the prototype framework involved five semi-structured interviews with Dutch assessment and multimedia experts to produce a final version of the framework. Second, the pilot MBPA was reconstructed in accordance with this finalized framework, resulting in an improved MBPA and demonstrating that the proposed framework is a useful and applicable tool for the design and development of MBPA in vocational education.     

The Role of Affective Variables in Autonomous Learning

The propensity of learners for autonomous learning is a function of the development of cognitive and metacognitive abilities for (a) processing, planning, and regulating learning activities; and (b) controlling and regulating affect and motivation. The development of these latter capabilities depends on the development of self-system structures and self-system processes. If learners are to apply processes necessary for autonomous learning, they must generate positive affect and motivation toward the learning task and toward applying the mental effort required. In turn, for positive affect and motivation to be generated, students must believe that their effort will lead to learning success and will contribute to meaningful personal goals. They must also be able to positively evaluate their personal competency and ability to take personal control over the demands of the learning task. A causal model based on these relationships is described, and instructional implications and future research directions are discussed.     

The interplay between subjective abilities and subjective demands and its relationship with academic success. An application of the person–environment fit theory

In this study, we draw on person–environment fit theory to analyze whether academic success is best explained by individual abilities subjectively exceeding situational demands or by abilities matching the demands. Moreover, we disentangled effects of perceived abilities and subjective person–environment (P-E) fit on academic success. All in all, 693 teacher education students participated in an online questionnaire. Students were asked to rate general requirements of their academic programs (e.g., self-discipline) on a 5-point scale in terms of (1) their own abilities and (2) the perceived relevance for their studies. P-E fit was determined by difference scores between abilities and relevance ratings. Academic success was assessed by grades, perceived performance, and study satisfaction. Data were analyzed through structural equation modeling and suggest that academic success is best explained by a match between abilities and demands. Moreover, all three criteria for academic success were more strongly related to subjective fit than to subjective abilities.     

Nursing Students' Intentions to Work in Dementia Care: Influence of Age,Ageism, and Perceived Barriers

Given a projected threefold increase in people living with dementia globally by 2050 (World Health Organization, 2012 World Health Organization (WHO) . ( 2012 ). Dementia: A public health priority . Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/75263/1/9789241564458_eng.pdf  [Google Scholar]), attracting nurses to work in this area will be critical to meet demand. This study examined the role of age, positive ageism, negative ageism, and aged-care placement completion in predicting nursing students' intentions to work in dementia care. Perceived barriers to working in dementia care were also explored through a thematic analysis. Participants were 135 undergraduate nursing students from one regional Australian university (ages ranging from 18 to 55years) who completed an online survey. Hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis revealed that age (p = .001) and positive ageism (p < .001) were associated with greater intentions to work in aged-care. A thematic analysis of perceived barriers to working in dementia care showed five themes consisting of 11 subthemes: profession (conditions, culture, diversity, interest); personal demands (emotional, physical); patient contact (communication, safety); experience (previous, lack); and no barriers. Younger students (<25 years of age) were more likely to nominate emotional demands as potential barriers, whereas older students were more likely to cite work conditions. Patient communication and interest in other areas of nursing were identified as barriers across age groups. The findings from this study suggest that educational providers could target students with specific characteristics associated with greater work intentions in dementia care, such as age and positive ageism. Perceived barriers to working in dementia care indicate possible areas of improvement that may attract more students to this field of practice.     

The effects of portfolio-based advice on the development of self-directed learning skills in secondary vocational education

This experimental study was designed to investigate whether supervision meetings, in which students receive specific advice on how to use a development portfolio to monitor their progress and plan their future learning, helps them to develop self-directed learning skills and improve their learning in the domain. In the first year of a hairdressing program in vocational education, supervision meetings were used to provide students with either specific advice or not. Students in the advice group (n = 21) formulated better learning needs, selected more suitable learning tasks, completed more practical assignments, and acquired more certificates than students in the feedback-only group (n = 22). Interviews also showed that students in the advice group appreciated the supervision meeting more and perceived them as more effective than students in the feedback-only group. Guidelines are provided for the use of development portfolios and the organization of supervision meetings in on-demand vocational education.

Training self-regulated learning skills with video modeling examples: Do task-selection skills transfer?

Self-assessment and task-selection skills are crucial in self-regulated learning situations in which students can choose their own tasks. Prior research suggested that training with video modeling examples, in which another person (the model) demonstrates and explains the cyclical process of problem-solving task performance, self-assessment, and task-selection, is effective for improving adolescents’ problem-solving posttest performance after self-regulated learning. In these examples, the models used a specific task-selection algorithm in which perceived mental effort and self-assessed performance scores were combined to determine the complexity and support level of the next task, selected from a task database. In the present study we aimed to replicate prior findings and to investigate whether transfer of task-selection skills would be facilitated even more by a more general, heuristic task-selection training than the task-specific algorithm. Transfer of task-selection skills was assessed by having students select a new task in another domain for a fictitious peer student. Results showed that both heuristic and algorithmic training of self-assessment and task-selection skills improved problem-solving posttest performance after a self-regulated learning phase, as well as transfer of task-selection skills. Heuristic training was not more effective for transfer than algorithmic training. These findings show that example-based self-assessment and task-selection training can be an effective and relatively easy to implement method for improving students’ self-regulated learning outcomes. Importantly, our data suggest that the effect on task-selection skills may transfer beyond the trained tasks, although future research should establish whether this also applies when trained students perform novel tasks themselves.     

牢固树立和全面落实科学发展观促进高等职业教育全面、协调、可持续发展

牢固树立和全面落实科学发展观,促进高职教育全面、协调、可持续发展,必须坚持"第一要务",抓住机遇,加快发展;必须坚持人才强校,切实抓好人才与师资队伍建设;必须坚持以人为本,实现好、维护好、发展好师生员工的根本利益;必须坚持"两个务必",加强管理,从严治校;必须狠抓工作落实,进一步把心思凝聚到学院发展的事业上,把精力集中到办实事上,把本领用在促发展上,把功夫下到抓落实上,脚踏实地,办人民满意的高职教育.     

School district triggers for reconstructing professional knowledge

In a recent publication, Senge (All systems go: the change imperative for whole system reform. Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, 2010, x) stated ??at no time in history has there been a more powerful need for a new vision of the purpose of education.?? Increasingly citizens, academics and practitioners are calling for radical changes to educational practices to meet the needs of a knowledge-based society in the twenty-first century (Dede in 21st Century skills: rethinking how students learn. Solution Tree Press, Bloomington, 2010; Hargreaves and Shirley in The fourth way: the inspiring future for educational change. Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, 2009). Accomplishing such substantive educational change requires that individual educators collectively reshape their personal professional knowledge (Connelly and Clandinin in Teachers as curriculum planners: narratives of experiences. OISE Press, Toronto, 1988; Elbaz in Curriculum Inq 11(1):43?C71, 1981) and adapt their personal mental models (Duffy in J Staff Dev 24(1):30?C36, 2003). In 2000, we began a longitudinal study on the role of a school district in facilitating significant educational reform which required adaptations to individual and collective mental models of professional practice. Annually we conducted intensive interviews with a large sample of teachers, school and system administrators in this large Ontario, Canada school district. Recently, we conducted a retrospective analysis of these data collected in order to identify the conditions necessary for a large organization to support knowledge-creation and dissemination. In this paper, we identify three school district actions that triggered individual educators to challenge and reconstruct their professional personal practical mental models of the teaching and learning. First, improved student learning became the central focus of the school district. Second, the school district stressed and created opportunities for educators to collectively engage in professional dialogue about their practice. Third, the school district emphasized the importance of educators individually and collectively using evidence to assess whether their actions improved student learning.     

Managing the Process of International Collaboration in Online Course Development: A Case-Example Involving Higher Education Institutions in Ireland,Switzerland, Austria,and the United Kingdom

There has been significant growth recently in online learning and joint programmes of education involving collaborative partnerships between and among higher education institutions in different jurisdictions. Utilising an interdisciplinary team model (Care and Scanlan 2001), we describe in this article the process of collaboration among four European institutions in Austria, Ireland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom in order to develop and deliver an accredited online course on the management of work-related stress for health and social care workers. This course was also one of the first to pilot a system of equivalency between two European vocational and higher education credit schemes to promote learner mobility and recognition of a new international qualification. Although this process of collaboration occurred within a pan-European context, important lessons may be drawn from this explanation that are of potential interest to the wider international audience.