Entrepreneurial orientation, technology transfer and spinoff performance of U.S. universities

This paper adopts a resource-based perspective to understand why some universities are more successful than others at generating technology-based spinoff companies. In this respect, we derive eight hypotheses that link attributes of resources and capabilities, institutional, financial, commercial and human capital, to university spinoff outcomes. Using panel data from 1980 to 2001, our econometric estimators reveal evidence of history dependence for successful technology transfer to occur although faculty quality, size and orientation of science and engineering funding and commercial capability were also found to be predictors of university spinoff activity. We conclude by drawing implications for policy makers and university heads.     

Assessing the relative performance of U.K. university technology transfer offices: parametric and non-parametric evidence

We present evidence on the relative performance of U.K. university technology transfer offices (TTOs) using data envelopment analysis (DEA) and stochastic frontier estimation (SFE). U.K. TTOs are found to exhibit low-levels of absolute efficiency. There also appear to be decreasing returns to scale, implying that TTOs may need to be reconfigured into smaller units. The development of regionally-based sector focused TTOs is also advised. Consistent with qualitative evidence from U.S. TTOs, we find that there is a need to upgrade the business skills and capabilities of U.K. TTO managers and licensing officers.     

University spin-out companies and venture capital

The creation of university spin-out companies that create wealth is a major policy objective of governments and universities. Finance is a catalyst of this wealth creation yet access to venture capital is a major impediment faced by these companies. In this article we adopt a finance pecking order perspective to examine the problems faced by those university spin-out companies seeking to access venture capital. We triangulate evidence from spin-out companies, university technology transfer offices and venture capital firms in the UK and Continental Europe to identify the problems and to suggest policy developments for these parties as well as government. We compare perceptions of high-tech venture capital firms that invest in spin-outs with those that do not, and also consider VCs’ views on spin-outs versus other high-tech firms. Our evidence identifies a mismatch between the demand and supply side of the market. In line with the pecking order theory, venture capitalists prefer to invest after the seed stage. However, in contrast to the pecking order theory, TTOs see venture capital as more important than internal funds early on. We develop policy implications for universities, technology transfer offices, academic entrepreneurs, venture capital firms and government and suggest areas for further research.     

Performance of Spanish universities in technology transfer: An empirical analysis

This paper investigates the performance of universities in the transfer of technology using a unique university-level dataset for Spain. The results suggest that universities with established policies and procedures for the management of technology transfer perform better. Universities with large and experienced technology transfer offices (TTOs) generate higher volumes of contract research, but the TTO characteristics appear to matter less for university performance in terms of licensing and creation of spin-offs. Furthermore, universities with a science park perform better than those without, which suggests that the agglomeration of knowledge close to universities has a positive effect on universities’ technology transfer performance.     

Intellectual property protection mechanisms in research partnerships

A set of US-based companies is investigated regarding the effectiveness of intellectual property protection mechanisms (IPPMs) in the formation of research partnerships. Patents are the most frequently used IPPM to protect both background and foreground knowledge in partnerships. Other IPPMs are used to protect know-how, especially in the early, forming stages of a partnership. Existing IP titles are quite useful when negotiating new partnerships. IPR negotiations are reported to be more complex in horizontal partnerships and when universities are involved.     

Why do some universities generate more start-ups than others?

The results of this study provide insight into why some universities generate more new companies to exploit their intellectual property than do others. We compare four different explanations for cross-institutional variation in new firm formation rates from university technology licensing offices (TLOs) over the 1994-1998 period—the availability of venture capital in the university area; the commercial orientation of university research and development; intellectual eminence; and university policies. The results show that intellectual eminence, and the policies of making equity investments in TLO start-ups and maintaining a low inventor’s share of royalties increase new firm formation. The paper discusses the implications of these results for university and public policy.     

Invention characteristics and the degree of exclusivity of university licenses: The case of two leading French research universities

This paper examines the determinants of university exclusive versus non-exclusive licenses. We specifically focus on the effect of the characteristics of the licensed invention (i.e. stage of development, specificity and appropriability). We rely on a unique and original dataset of 91 inventions contained in 62 intellectual property licensing contracts executed in the period of 2005–2014 by two leading French research universities. We cannot find a significant relation between the characteristics of the invention and the degree of exclusivity. In particular, as opposed to theoretical predictions, embryonic inventions are not significantly linked to more exclusive licenses and generic inventions are not significantly linked to non-exclusive licenses. Furthermore, inventions that are both generic and embryonic are not significantly linked to exclusive licenses per field of use. These results, although still exploratory, contribute to feed the discussion about the performance of university-industry technology transfer since they suggest that performance might be improved by taking more into account the characteristics of the licensed invention.     

Assessing the impact of organizational practices on the relative productivity of university technology transfer offices: an exploratory study

We present quantitative and qualitative evidence on the relative productivity of university technology transfer offices (TTOs). Our empirical results suggest that TTO activity is characterized by constant returns to scale and that environmental and institutional factors explain some of the variation in performance. Productivity may also depend on organizational practices. Unfortunately, there are no quantitative measures available on such practices, so we rely on inductive, qualitative methods to identify them. Based on 55 interviews of 98 entrepreneurs, scientists, and administrators at five research universities, we conclude that the most critical organizational factors are faculty reward systems, TTO staffing/compensation practices, and cultural barriers between universities and firms.     

专利权转让与许可视角下生物医药领域高校专利转化的现状研究

科技创新驱动发展的本质是自主知识产权的高质量创造和有效运用,我国高校作为技术创新的重要载体,其专利转化率低是不争的事实。文章立足生物医药领域,检索分析转让和许可这两种主要的高校专利转化形式的相关专利数据,研究提示目前该领域高校专利转化率仍偏低,但处于持续上升态势;转让在其中居主导地位,且未来仍可能持续保持该现状。同时,已有南京大学等转化水平较高的高校,其共同特点是自建知识产权运营机构或与校外相关机构密切合作;当前国家高度重视高校技术转化的支持服务体系构建,高校应充分利用政策宏利,提升技术转化能力。此外,转让与许可二者各有优劣,基于医药领域的复杂技术特性,高校选择专利转化策略时应结合目的、技术特性、企业情况等综合权衡。     

知识产权与大学技术转移——美国和日本比较研究

本文详细比较了美日大学国家资助研究成果的知识产权归属和技术转移途径,着重分析了美国1980年颁布的贝伊-多尔法案(Bayh-DoleAct)对美国大学技术转移的影响以及日本大学非正式技术转移方式的形成原因和问题。文章最后还就国家资助研究成果的归属以及大学技术转移的环境作了探讨。     

Academic inventors as brokers

Academic inventors are university scientists who appear as designated inventors of patents owned either by business companies, academic institutions or individuals. We analyse their relationships with co-inventors, who may be either academic colleagues, students, or, very often, industrial researchers. Gould and Fernandez's (1989) taxonomy of ‘brokerage’ roles is adjusted to patent data, and complemented with information drawn from both academic inventors’ publications and replies to a short questionnaire. Only very few academic inventors are found to hold brokerage positions. Such inventors have a large number of patents, a strong publication record and a higher-than-average share of patents held by companies, rather than universities. Relationships of academic inventors with co-inventors from industry are weaker and less likely to be maintained than those with co-inventors from academia. Academic inventors in gatekeeping positions (between university and industry) maintain the strongest ties with all types of co-inventors.     

OFDI影响区域创新能力的动态门槛效应

本文利用我国2003-2013年省际面板数据,构建动态面板门限回归模型,实证分析知识产权保护在OFDI影响区域创新能力中的作用机理。研究结果显示,对外直接投资对我国各省份创新能力的作用受到知识产权保护程度的影响;当知识产权保护水平小于门限值时,OFDI对区域创新能力的促进作用并不显著,且OFDI对区域创新能力的贡献率较低,通过OFDI促进国内创新能力的政策基本无效;当知识产权保护水平高于门限值时,对外直接投资对区域创新能力存在显著的促进效应,且相应的贡献率较高,在推进OFDI时会提升其创新能力。     

OFDI影响区域创新能力的动态门槛效应

本文利用我国2003-2013年省际面板数据，构建动态面板门限回归模型，实证分析知识产权保护在OFDI影响区域创新能力中的作用机理。研究结果显示，对外直接投资对我国各省份创新能力的作用受到知识产权保护程度的影响；当知识产权保护水平小于门限值时，OFDI对区域创新能力的促进作用并不显著，且OFDI对区域创新能力的贡献率较低，通过OFDI促进国内创新能力的政策基本无效；当知识产权保护水平高于门限值时，对外直接投资对区域创新能力存在显著的促进效应，且相应的贡献率较高，在推进OFDI时会提升其创新能力。     

Gaining from interactions with universities: Multiple methods for nurturing absorptive capacity

This paper examines the various methods through which firms benefit from interactions with universities, arguing that such benefits are instrumental in nurturing the multiple facets of a firm's absorptive capacity. We bring together data collected from a survey of UK firms that collaborated with universities, and firm-level data on past partnerships with universities. The results show that benefits from interactions with universities are multifaceted, including enhancement of the firm's explorative and exploitative capabilities. Results also indicate that firms’ R&D commitments, geographical proximity to and research quality of university partners have a distinct impact on the different types of benefits from interactions with universities. We find geographical proximity is crucial for assessing problem-solving as an important benefit, while interactions with top quality universities have a positive influence on the benefits associated with firms’ downstream activities. We discuss the implications of these findings for research and policy.     

国际技术转移的制约条件:一个理论模型

基于跨国公司的视角构建了一个包含FDI、出口贸易和技术特许三种策略的模型,分析了国际技术转移的制约条件。分析结果表明,对于东道国而言,提供适度有效的知识产权保护政策,提高本国的自主创新能力可以吸引更多的跨国公司通过FDI向其子公司进行技术转移。加大R&D投入,健全国家创新体制以及完善知识产权保护法律体系,应该成为我国吸引FDI技术转移、缩小同发展达国家技术差距的重要政策。     

国家科技重大专项知识产权育成机制研究

国家科技重大专项全创新链的知识产权育成是切实提高我国关键技术领域自主创新能力的核心问题。由于重大专项参与主体多且内外部要素的叠加作用呈非线性特征,导致知识产权的育成绩效较低。为此,文章首先基于协同论与系统论提出创新链下国家科技重大专项知识产权育成机制的概念模型,以知识产权育成过程中的关键要素识别为切入点,深入研究重大专项全创新链与知识产权育成阶段之间的耦合关系。其次,通过搜集国家相关政策,结合重大专项知识产权育成过程进行理论阐述,为构建模型与划分系统建立理论依据。再次,通过分析影响重大专项知识产权育成的内部因素和外部环境因素,提炼影响知识产权育成的关键要素。在提炼关键要素的基础之上,利用系统动力学建立起知识产权育成机制的因果回路图与流图,并将知识产权育成系统分为四个子系统：专利育成子系统、创新收益子系统、技术标准制定子系统和外界环境子系统,以此来解构重大专项知识产权育成机理。最后,针对重大专项知识产权育成问题,从加强政府管控、形成技术标准体系、推动成果产业化、营造良好市场环境、探索全过程管理五个方面提出建议。本研究对于设计重大专项知识产权育成的有效路径,实现政府精准施策,增加核心自主知...     

我国大学知识产权政策困境及其完善

作为国家创新体系中重要部分,大学在技术创新和技术转移中发挥了无可替代的作用。但是,由于科技政策和知识产权法律之间长期的逻辑隔阂与理念差异,使得我国大学在知识产权运用以及基于知识产权的技术转移受到了明显的政策限制。从科技成果管理体制与知识产权客体制度的概念差异、科技创新与知识产权转移的功能缺失与中介缺位、大学国资管理与知识产权利用的政策冲突和调整交叉、大学人事制度与权利利益分享的制度空白和机制失调等主要方面阐述了政策困境的形成原因。并以发达国家大学知识产权管理经验为参考,针对我国大学知识产权政策完善提出了相应的建议。     

加强知识产权管理 践行创新驱动发展

文章介绍了中科院大连化学物理所的知识产权管理和技术转移工作,针对研究所如何完善知识产权保护和运营,促进科技成果的快速转化等方面提出了一些想法和思考,希望为科研机构的技术转移转化和知识产权管理工作提供一些有意义的借鉴。     

Innovation across Europe: How important are institutional differences?

By changing the level of competition and/or affecting the allocation of resources, institutions can play a very important role on innovation activity. In this paper we investigate the relative importance of institutional variation across European countries in explaining differences in their innovation intensity at the industry level. We employ a novel indicator of innovation therefore circumventing the limitations of more traditional indicators. Our results are broadly consistent with previous empirical literature. They show that stringent product and labor market regulation affects innovation intensity negatively, and that more developed credit markets foster innovation. However, the empirical findings also raise doubts with respect to the strengthening of intellectual property rights as a means to stimulate innovation, a result that is in accordance with recent propositions in the literature.     

Spatial differences in the quality of university patenting: Do regions matter?

This paper uses patent citation data to analyze the quality of university technology across European regions. The empirical analysis draws on a panel dataset of 4580 European university-owned patents classified by 202 European regions over the period 1998-2004. The methodology involves a multilevel framework to identify the effects of factors at three hierarchical levels (individual, university, and regional) on the quality of university patenting. The results suggest that regional factors, such as the level of development, industrial potential, and regional higher education R&D expenditure, do not play any significant role in determining the quality of European university patents. We instead find that the factors affecting patent quality stem from their specific characteristics. We also find that university size does not explain the quality of patents. However, there is significant unobserved heterogeneity at the university level in all models, suggesting that differences in other university characteristics explain a substantial part of the variance in patent quality.