Delivering school‐based mental health services by school psychologists: Education,training, and ethical issues

Consistent with the priority goals of the 2002 Future of School Psychology Conference, the National Association of School Psychologists' Blueprint for Training and Practice III advocates for school psychologists becoming “leading mental health experts in schools.” In this regard, the present article reviews the prevalence and incidence of children's mental health problems in the schools, followed by a historical overview of the nature of school‐based mental health services. We discuss education and training issues and related ethical and professional practice issues that focus on the ethics codes of the National Association of School Psychologists and the American Psychological Association that are associated with the delivery of mental health services by school psychologists. Recommendations are offered for graduate‐level coursework and field experiences in the delivery of school‐based mental health services, as well as future directions for research in this area. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

EVIDENCE FOR THE EXPANDING ROLE OF CONSULTATION IN THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

In 2010, the National Association of School Psychologists approved the Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (or the NASP Practice Model), codifying what an expanded role encompasses in the delivery of school‐based psychological services. This study examined the role and function of school psychology practitioners from three Midwestern states with different legal statues and policy initiatives related to the practice of school psychology. A total of 175 practicing school psychologists from Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa reported their actual and preferred practices and completed a self‐assessment on their knowledge of the NASP Practice Model. Results showed participants not only identified problem‐solving consultation as their most knowledgeable domain of practice but also the activity on which they spent the greatest amount of their time. Analysis by state revealed differential levels of practice devoted to consultation and intervention. Study findings are discussed relative to the potential impact and importance of state law and policy initiatives.     

Private practice of school psychology: Implications from the APA specialty guidelines

A model of school psychology private practice is developed that is appropriate to the unique training and experience of school psychologists and is consistent with the professional functions outlined in the Specialty Guidelines for rhe Delivery of Services by School Psychologists developed by the American Psychological Association. Each of the six functions is examined to see how it could be conducted effectively within the parameters of private practice. Client populations and recruitment efforts are addressed briefly. A cautionary note is sounded about several potential ethical conflicts that have particular relevance to the private practice of school psychology; i.e., competence, communication of services to the public, and conflicts of interest.     

PERSONNEL NEEDS IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: A 10‐YEAR FOLLOW‐UP STUDY ON PREDICTED PERSONNEL SHORTAGES

Concerns regarding whether a sufficient supply of school psychologists exists have been evident for decades. Studies have predicted that school psychology would face a critical personnel shortage that would peak in 2010, but continue into the foreseeable future. The current study is a 10‐year follow‐up investigation based on previously published personnel shortage projections. Data derived from the National Association of School Psychologists 2009–2010 national study were used to examine current personnel shortages as well as to project the extent to which personnel shortages are likely to continue. Findings indicate that the field of school psychology continues to experience a personnel shortage that will continue through 2025. Additionally, greater rates of retirements are projected for the field for school psychologists who are males, who possess a doctoral degree, and for university faculty. Analyses based on the U.S. Census Regions indicate that notable differences are likely to occur in the match between the supply of and demand for school psychologists based on geographical location. Implications are discussed relating to the recruitment and retention of school psychologists and to the services they deliver.     

Analysis of author affiliation across four school psychology journals from 2000 to 2008: Where is the practitioner research?

Articles published between 2000 and 2008 in four major school psychology journals—School Psychology Review, Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools, and School Psychology Quarterly—were classified based on type (empirical or narrative) and on the primary and secondary authors' affiliations. Results showed that more than 90% of the primary and secondary authors were university affiliated with little difference across article type. Although more than 85% of school psychologists are practitioners, these results suggest that their contributions to these school psychology journals are limited because they account for less than 10% of the authors of articles. Discussion focuses on practitioners' involvement in the research base that is intended to inform their professional behaviors. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

IDENTIFYING AND CULTIVATING LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Though National Association of School Psychologists standards acknowledge the urgent need for leadership skills among school psychologists and loosely define a leadership agenda, a cogent model for the training and practice of this skill set has not yet been explicated. The formulation of a preliminary conceptual framework is a particularly pressing agenda for school psychology practitioners and academicians who, in response to the call for increased accountability in general and special education, must shift curricula from a traditional diagnostic/consultative/intervention framework to include topics related to organizational effectiveness. The objective of this article is to identify key behaviors, skills, dispositions, and contextual variables that will facilitate successful leadership among practicing school psychologists and then to propose considerations for specialist‐level training in school psychology.     

Culturally Responsive Consultation Among Practicing School Psychologists

ABSTRACT

School-based consultation has garnered increasing attention relevant to culturally responsive practice in school psychology. Although prior research has investigated school psychologists’ experiences with supporting culturally diverse youth through school-based consultation, few studies have utilized an established framework to understand school psychologists’ experiences. We utilized specific components of Ingraham’s Multicultural School Consultation framework to examine fifteen school psychologists’ experiences with providing culturally responsive consultation. Constant comparative analysis revealed the various strategies used by practitioners to support culturally diverse students throughout the consultation process (e.g., involving multiple people in decision-making, using non-confrontational approaches to educate school personnel about cultural dynamics, providing messages of support and encouragement to diverse students and families) and the socio-contextual barriers to their practice (e.g., cultural minimization, lack of administrative support). Implications for research, training, and school-based practice are discussed.     

PUBLICATION OUTLETS FOR SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY FACULTY: 2010 to 2015

Many school psychology faculty are required to publish for purposes of retention and promotion. It is useful to have an understanding of the different outlets for scholarly publications. In the present study, we investigated the peer‐reviewed journals in which school psychology faculty were published between 2010 and 2015, the number of articles in each journal, and the acceptance rates and impact estimates for each journal. We identified school psychology faculty using the National Association of School Psychologists website and conducted a search of the publications using EBSCO databases. Results indicated that there were a total of 3,675 articles and a total of 832 peer‐reviewed journals in which school psychology faculty were published during the 6‐year span. Among the peer‐reviewed journals, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Quarterly, School Psychology Review, and Journal of School Psychology were the journals in which school psychology faculty members most frequently published. Acceptance rates ranged from less than 5% to 98%, with an average of 29.7%. H‐indexes ranged from 1 to 890, with an average of 52. These results illustrate the variety of journals that publish works from school psychology faculty and the need for school psychology faculty and other authors to consider a variety of options when seeking publication.     

Considerations for education and training in organizational school psychology

Organizational School Psychology (OSP) can be viewed as an approach to professional practice in which a school psychologist seeks to facilitate planned organization change in public schools. For OSP to become a useful aspect of practice, however, school psychologists must be provided with appropriate education and training experiences. This paper presents information about education and training in OSP, based upon the authors' experiences in research and practice of OSP, as well as their preparation of school psychologists for organizational-level practice. In the paper, the nature and scope of education and training in OSP are discussed, goals and methods for education and training are described, and the readiness of school psychology programs for education and training in OSP is considered.     

Perceptions of trainers and practitioners regarding assessment and intervention for students with low incidence disabilities

Two national surveys of the perceptions of trainers and practitioners regarding assessment and intervention for students with low incidence disabilities (LID) were conducted. The first survey, sent to the directors of 250 school psychology training programs, was designed to determine the extent and type of training in assessment and intervention for students with LID offered in school psychology training programs. The second survey, mailed to 500 randomly selected National Association of School Psychologists' (NASP) members, was developed to assess the extent and type of assessment and intervention for students with LID provided by school practitioners. Responses were received from 121 trainers (50.8% response rate) and 361 practitioners (72.2% response rate). Results indicated, while assessment and intervention for LID remains a small part of the school psychology caseload, school psychologists are using many of the best practice methods. However, recommendations are provided for increased awareness of additional methods, for seeking closer collaboration with special education professionals who specialize in working with this student population, and for more possibilities of subspecialization for future psychologists who will possess expertise in conducting assessment and intervention for LID. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 677–689, 2005.     

A current landscape of specific learning disability identification: Training,practices, and implications

Specific learning disability (SLD) identification procedures vary across states (Maki et al., 2015, School Psychol Quart, 30, 457–469); however, the extent to which SLD identification methods are implemented at the district level is not well understood. Moreover, the high‐stakes nature of SLD identification necessitates extensive training, but research regarding graduate and postgraduate training in SLD is limited. This study examined school psychologists’ SLD training and practices through survey methodology. Results showed that a growing number of school psychologists use, prefer, and receive training in response to intervention and pattern of strengths and weaknesses to identify students with SLD while the use of and preference for ability–achievement discrepancy may be decreasing. However, nearly one‐third of school psychologists still reported the use of ability–achievement discrepancy. In addition, over half of school psychologists reported using state department of education guidance documents to inform their SLD identification practices. Implications for training and practice are discussed.     

Differences between urban and rural school psychology: Training implications

Urban and rural school psychologists in Virginia were surveyed on role diversity, role emphasis, continuing education, and job satisfaction. As predicted, rural school psychologists have a more diverse role, spend less time in traditional assessment activities, and are more likely to engage in activities involving them at the systems and community levels. School psychologists indicated their perceptions of differences in rural and urban school psychology. Implications of urban vs. rural practice for school psychology training programs are discussed.     

SURVEY OF NATIONALLY CERTIFIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ ROLES AND TRAINING IN PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY

A randomly selected group of Nationally Certified School Psychologists (NCSPs; n = 817) were mailed the 42‐item School Psychopharmacology Roles and Training Evaluation (SPRTE) which inquired about their caseloads, practice roles as proposed by DuPaul and Carlson ( 2005 ), and prior training in psychopharmacology. A modified Tailored Design Methodology (TDM; Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2009 ), involving four mail‐based contacts, was used to yield a 74% survey return rate (n = 607). Of the returned surveys, a 72% (n = 548) usable response rate was obtained and used in the present study. Consistent with prior literature, nearly all (99.6%) school psychologists reported serving at least one student taking psychotropic medication. Primary direct service roles included monitoring behavioral response to psychotropic treatment (28%), monitoring treatment side‐effects (23%), and developing psychotropic treatment goals from direct assessment measures (14%). Primary indirect service roles included providing behavior management consultation to teachers of students taking medication (96%), implementing adjunctive psychosocial supports (87%), and providing assessment data to physicians for diagnostic purposes (84%). Despite differences in established psychopharmacological training standards, actual practice roles and training received did not differ between NCSPs from APA‐accredited programs and those from National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)‐approved programs. Implications for school psychopharmacology practice, training and research are addressed.     

Demographics and professional practices of school psychologists: A comparison of NASP members and non–NASP school psychologists by telephone survey

A national telephone survey was conducted to examine potential differences between National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) members and non–NASP member school psychologists. Identified schools were contacted by telephone and the researchers asked to speak with the school psychologist. A sample of 124 practicing school psychologists was obtained. Overall, 57.3% (n = 71) of respondents were NASP members, and 42.7% (n = 53) were not. In most respects, current results were similar to NASP‐member‐only surveys. Current results suggest that previous studies overestimated the proportion of NASP members among school psychologists and may have underestimated the total number of school‐based practitioners. Significant differences between NASP members and nonmembers were found in ethnicity, national certification, professional organization membership, and use of Curriculum Based Measurement. Results are discussed in the context of previous national surveys. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Transition to Kindergarten for Typically Developing Children: A Survey of School Psychologists’ Involvement

Research suggests that a large percentage of kindergarten children do not successfully transition to school (Rimm-Kaufman et al. 2000). As a result, a number of school transition initiatives have been developed by educators and policy makers to address the difficulties young children may experience upon kindergarten entry. Despite this attention, our review found no studies examining the involvement of school psychologists in kindergarten transition practices. The present study reports the outcomes of a national survey of the membership directory of the National Association of School Psychologists examining school-based involvement in kindergarten transition activities; school psychologists’ perceived involvement with and training in kindergarten transition activities; and school psychologists’ perceived barriers to engage in kindergarten transition activities. Results showed that most schools engaged in at least one kindergarten transition activity per year, with half of the responding sample reporting involvement. School psychologists were more likely to be involved in kindergarten transition activities if they were employed in an urban locale or a large to moderate-sized school setting. School psychologists most frequently reported involvement with kindergarten screenings and collaborating with kindergarten and preschool teachers. Implications and recommendations for practice among early childhood and other educational professionals are delineated.     

An examination of ethnic incongruence in school‐based psychological services and diversity‐training experiences among school psychologists

The current study examined the prevalence of ethnic incongruence in three school psychological services: assessment, consultation, and counseling; the prevalence of diversity training among school psychologists; and practitioners' attitudes about their training experiences. A mail survey was sent to a random sample of 500 school psychologists drawn from the 1999 membership roster of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Ethnic incongruence, defined as ethnic differences between a professional and a client, was commonly reported for assessment, consultation, and counseling cases. Diversity training was reported by 90.7% of participating school psychologists in the form of graduate coursework, internship experiences, or continuing education. Though most respondents rated their training experiences positively, improvements were suggested. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 419–432, 2005.     

Competencies for Systems-Level Consultants Within Diverse Schools

The authors in this special issue on systems-level consultation provide an excellent range of models for how school psychologists can work as system-level consultants within the various communities they serve. This article (a) provides commentary on the four articles in this special issue focused on systems-level consultation to serve diverse populations in schools, (b) outlines 10 competencies for systems consultants in diverse schools, and (c) suggests directions for future research, theory, and practice in this area. By intersecting the 2010 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Practice Model, Blueprint III, and the illustrations in these four articles, 10 competencies for systems-level consultants are articulated. These involve collaborative, recursive, interpersonal processes whereby the systems-level consultant facilitates communication and understanding across different stakeholders, assisting in the joint gathering and interpretation of data. In systems-level consultation, the system is the client and consultants work to build capacity within the system and its stakeholders to address problems and needs.     

School psychologists’ interprofessional collaboration with medical providers: An initial examination of training,preparedness, and current practices

Research has pointed to the importance of interprofessional collaboration (IPC) between school psychologists and medical providers in the provision of quality mental health care for youth with chronic health conditions. However, little is known about current IPC practices among school psychologists. This study examined school psychology trainees’ and professionals’ perceptions of training, preparedness, and current practices related to IPC with medical providers. Survey results indicated that participants (N = 317) endorse relatively low levels of training and preparedness and limited practice of IPC with medical providers. Additionally, results indicated that perceptions of training and preparedness were associated with current practices in IPC with medical providers. Findings demonstrated the impact of training and preparedness on subsequent engagement in IPC and have implications for the future training of school psychologists as they seek to address the needs of youth with chronic health conditions.     

Intervention research productivity from 2005 to 2014: Faculty and university representation in school psychology journals

The purpose of this study was to identify authors and training programs making the most frequent contributions to intervention research published in six school psychology journals (School Psychology Review, School Psychology Quarterly, Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology International, and Journal of Applied School Psychology) over the 10‐year period from 2005 to 2014. A total of 310 articles were identified as intervention articles; 919 unique authors, representing 289 universities or organizations, contributed to these publications. Top‐ranked authors and universities were identified based on authorship rating and total publications, respectively. This evaluation highlights key contributors to the primary intervention research in school psychology, as well as themes of the publications of top‐ranked individuals and programs.     

CURRENT AND FUTURE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PREPAREDNESS TO WORK WITH LGBT STUDENTS: ROLE OF EDUCATION AND GAY‐STRAIGHT ALLIANCES

This study sought to assess current and future school psychologists’ attitudes toward and preparedness to address the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students in schools. Two‐hundred seventy‐nine school psychologists (n = 162, 58%) and school psychology graduate students (n = 117, 42%) were included in the study. Participants completed measures of attitudes toward LGBT students, preparedness to address the needs of LGBT youth, and social desirability. For both school psychologists and graduate students, increased education was associated with improved attitudes and increased preparedness to treat LGBT youth. For school psychologists, presence of a gay‐straight alliance was associated with increased knowledge about LGBT youth, as well as higher ratings of preparedness to treat LGBT youth; the same associations did not hold true for the graduate students. These findings have implications for the training and practice of school psychologists in addressing the needs of LGBT youth in schools.