Comparison of Postperformance State Anxiety of Internals and Externals Following Failure or Success on a Simple Motor Task

Abstract

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to determine the effect of locus of control (internal-external), success-failure, and trait anxiety (A-trait) on the perception of threat to self following competitive motor performance, as measured by postperformance state anxiety (A-state); and (b) to examine effects of success-failure relative to locus of control, as measured by self-protective answers on a postperformance attribution questionnaire. In addition, postperformance A-state relative to number of internal attributions was investigated. Two groups of subjects (N = 32) satisfying the criteria for internal-external control were subdivided by sex and randomly assigned to success-failure conditions. A-trait and preperformance A-state were assessed by the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) prior to the experimental treatment, and A-state measurement was repeated following the experimental treatment. Multivariate analysis of covariance revealed significant interaction effects of success-failure and locus of control relative to postperformance A-state. Univariate ANOVA revealed that externals were significantly higher on A-trait than internals. Regression analyses showed significant relationships for A-trait and pre- and postperformance A-state, as well as for relationship of postperformance A-state to number of internal attributions.     

Influence of perceived competence and causal dimension orientation on expectations, persistence, and performance during perceived failure

This investigation was conducted to compare the influence of high and low perceived competence (PC) and various causal dimension orientations on expectations, persistence, and performance while perceiving failure on a motor task. Based on a response to a PC scale, 84 junior high school students were selected to participate in this study. Separately, 42 low and 42 high PC subjects were oriented to perceive their performance on a stabilometer balancing task as due to: (a) internal, controllable, unstable factors (ICU); (b) internal, uncontrollable, stable factors (IUS); or (c) nothing in particular (NDO). Subjects then received fictitious negative feedback over 15 trials. Results revealed that persistence, expectations, and performance dependent measures were significant for PC and Causal Dimension groups. More specifically, the High PC group persisted longer, had higher expectations, and performed significantly better than the Low PC group. Furthermore, the subjects presented ICU orientations persisted for a longer amount of time, revealed higher expectations over trials, and performed significantly better over trials than the subjects in the IUS and NDO groups. These findings suggest that perceived competence and causal dimensional orientations influence children's expectations, persistence, and performance when perceiving failure on a motor task.     

Reliability of the Heart Rate Response to Submaximal Upper and Lower Body Exercise

Abstract

This investigation was conducted to compare the influence of high and low perceived competence (PC) and various causal dimension orientations on expectations, persistence, and performance while perceiving failure on a motor task. Based on a response to a PC scale, 84 junior high school students were selected to participate in this study. Separately, 42 low and 42 high PC subjects were oriented to perceive their performance on a stabilometer balancing task as due to: (a) internal, controllable, unstable factors (ICU); (b) internal, uncontrollable, stable factors (IUS); or (c) nothing in particular (NDO). Subjects then received fictitious negative feedback over 15 trials. Results revealed that persistence, expectations, and performance dependent measures were significant for PC and Causal Dimension groups. More specifically, the High PC group persisted longer, had higher expectations, and performed significantly better than the Low PC group. Furthermore, the subjects presented ICU orientations persisted for a longer amount of time, revealed higher expectations over trials, and performed significantly better over trials than the subjects in the IUS and NDO groups. These findings suggest that perceived competence and causal dimensional orientations influence children's expectations, persistence, and performance when perceiving failure on a motor task.     

心理控制源与奖赏结构对大学生操作技能的影响

根据交互作用理论,采用重复测量1个因素的3因素混合实验设计,考察了心理控制源、奖赏结构及其交互作用对操作技能的影响。研究共分两个实验：实验1研究内外控者在个人条件下的操作技能表现。实验2研究内外控者在合作条件下的操作技能表现。研究主要结论如下：（1）主效应的验证：不同心理控制源老的操作成绩没有显著差异,在竞争结构下和在个体化结构下的操作成绩没有差异;在合作条件下,在竞争合作奖赏结构下内一内控配对者的操作成绩显著好于外-外控配对者,竞争合作奖赏结构下的操作成绩显著好于一般合作奖赏结构下的操作成绩。（2）交互作用的验证：外控者在个体化奖赏结构下的操作技能成绩显著好于在竞争奖赏结构下的成绩,而内控者在竞争奖赏结构下的操作成绩显著好于在个体化奖赏结构下的成绩。     

The Effect of the Rate of Muscle Contraction on the Force-Time Curve Parameters of Male and Female Subjects

Purpose: Suprapostural task performance (manual tracking) and postural control (sway and frequency) were examined as a function of attentional focus, age, and tracking difficulty. Given the performance benefits often found under external focus conditions, it was hypothesized that external focus instructions would promote superior tracking and reduced postural sway for both age groups, most notably as a function of tracking difficulty. Method: Postural sway, frequency of postural adjustments, and tracking accuracy under two levels of task difficulty were assessed for younger (M _age = 20.98 years) and older (M _age = 70.80 years) participants while they manually tracked a pursuit-rotor target. Participants received instructions to focus on either their actions (internal focus) or the effect of their actions (external focus). Results: Analyses revealed a beneficial effect of an external focus on suprapostural performance on the less-difficult (0.5 Hz) tracking task, and this performance was associated with a modest improvement in medial-lateral postural sway. Conclusion: The findings offer limited support for external focus-of-attention benefits under a mildly challenging tracking task. While older adults tend to adopt a conservative postural control strategy regardless of tracking task difficulty, external focus instructions on a suprapostural task promoted a modest, beneficial shift in postural control.     

Age and sex differences in motor performance of pre-school Nigerian children

Differences in motor performance according to chronological age and gender of 341 young Nigerian children (ages 3 to 5) were examined. Motor test items designed by Morris et al. (1981) were administered to the subjects. Analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in the motor performance of the groups. In the whole sample, more age differences than sex differences in performance were noted. Except for the balancing and running performances of the girls, a fairly linear trend of improvement with age was observed in the motor performances of the groups. At each age level the boys consistently performed better than the girls in four of the six motor tests (catching, standing long jump, tennis ball throw and speed run). Generally, the 4- and 5-year-old children performed homogeneously, with a great disparity in performance noted for the 3-year-old children. The results of this study confirm that age and sex differences in motor performance occur at early childhood. Prospective studies should seek to control the extraneous factors which influence motor development and account for the observed differences in motor performance of pre-school children.     

Precision Knowledge of Results and Motor Performance: Relationship to Age

In motor skill performance and retention the complexity of knowledge of results should interact with the child's processing rate. This rate has been demonstrated to increase with age. Two experiments were designed to assess this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, 30 7-year-old and 30 10-year-old boys were randomly assigned within age level to three knowledge of results (KR) conditions: no KR, general KR, and precise KR. Performance was assessed on a vertical positioning task at two angles, 60° and 100°, for 10 performance trials. The preciseness of KR interacted with age and the degree of the angle, indicating that at the more difficult angle (60°) preciseness may have been detrimental to the performance of the 7-year-olds but beneficial to the 10-year-olds. At the easier angle (100°), precise KR improved performance for both age groups. In Experiment 2, 27 second-grade and 27 fourth-grade children were randomly assigned within age groups to the same three levels of KR preciseness. A horizontal curvilinear positioning task was used as the motor task and subjects were given 40 acquisition and 19 KR withdrawal trials. Results suggested that while KR was better than no KR during learning, the level of KR preciseness was of minor importance. However, the preciseness of KR during acquisition was of considerable value after KR was withdrawn (retention phase). The older children were able to use more precise KR to form a perceptual trace more resistant to forgetting, while the younger children were unable to use the additional information contained in precise KR.     

Visually and acoustically augmented performance feedback as an aid in motor control learning: a study of selected components of the rowing action

The present work compares the efficiency of two training techniques as aids to learning selected aspects of a sequentially ordered action such as that of rowing. Subjects in one group were trained with a conventional learning technique (CLT) while those in a second group were trained by an augmented feedback technique referred to as external feedback (EFB). Progress was recorded on learning curves. Rowing athletes with limited experience and psychophysiology students were used for the study. The tasks consisted of learning movement timing (rhythmicity of action and coordination of body parts) and movement intensity (force and electromyogram development), in four separate experiments. The learning curves for EFB subjects were found to have significantly and consistently higher slopes than those for CLT subjects. Optimal criteria were reached by EBF subjects, after a continuous increase in performance levels and a concomitant decrease in standard deviations evaluated from periodicity, movement accuracy and force. Subjects, who after 8 to 10 sessions of CLT learning had not reached optimal level, were exposed to EFB. Their performances then showed a marked improvement and attained the required criterion in 2 to 4 sessions. This further demonstrates the efficacy of EFB as compared with CLT, as an aid to learning a complex sensorimotor action. The efficacy of EFB as a learning technique is discussed in relation to the internal model of the task to be executed and to sensory motor control and motor programmes.     

Individual Differences Influencing Immediate Effects of Internal and External Focus Instructions on Children’s Motor Performance

Purpose: A large pool of evidence supports the beneficial effect of an external focus of attention on motor skill performance in adults. In children, this effect has been studied less and results are inconclusive. Importantly, individual differences are often not taken into account. We investigated the role of working memory, conscious motor control, and task-specific focus preferences on performance with an internal and external focus of attention in children. Methods: Twenty-five children practiced a golf putting task in both an internal focus condition and external focus condition. Performance was defined as the average distance toward the hole in 3 blocks of 10 trials. Task-specific focus preference was determined by asking how much effort it took to apply the instruction in each condition. In addition, working memory capacity and conscious motor control were assessed. Results: Children improved performance in both the internal focus condition and external focus condition (?_p² = .47), with no difference between conditions (?_p² = .01). Task-specific focus preference was the only factor moderately related to the difference between performance with an internal focus and performance with an external focus (r = .56), indicating better performance for the preferred instruction in Block 3. Conclusion: Children can benefit from instruction with both an internal and external focus of attention to improve short-term motor performance. Individual, task-specific focus preference influenced the effect of the instructions, with children performing better with their preferred focus. The results highlight that individual differences are a key factor in the effectiveness in children’s motor performance. The precise mechanisms underpinning this effect warrant further research.     

A Comparison of the Motor Performance of Black and Caucasian Girls Age 6–8

Abstract

An investigation was undertaken to determine possible age and race difference between Black and Caucasian girls ages 6, 7, and 8 years. Ninety female subjects were administered 28 test items measuring speed, muscular power, agility, flexibility, balance, muscular endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance. Few significant differences were observed between adjacent ages but 8-year-old females were significantly superior to the 6-year-old subjects on most motor performance variables utilized. For race comparisons, no significant differences were noted for measures of flexibility, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, speed, balance, or muscular power. The Black subjects were significantly superior on two measures of agility while the Caucasian subjects performed significantly better on the time-limit shuttle run and grip strength.     

Coding of Learned Kinesthetic Location Information

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the coding characteristics of kinesthetic location information acquired during learning trials. Forty-eight blindfolded subjects learned to make a linear response with the right hand to a criterion location during 13 trials. Upon completion of the learning trials, subjects performed 10 trials without knowledge of results (KR) under one of four treatment conditions which were defined by the limb used and the dominant source of feedback available. Specifically, the conditions were right-hand control with kinesthetic feedback, left-hand kinesthetic, right-hand visual, and left-hand visual. The results of the ANOVAs for absolute error (AE) and constant error (CE) from the no-KR trials revealed that the visual feedback groups made significantly greater response errors than did the kinesthetic feedback groups. The blocks main effect for CE was also significant. Analysis of variable error (VE) indicated that the visual feedback groups were significantly more consistent in their responses than were the kinesthetic feedback groups. Within a motor learning paradigm, the concept of a spatial-location coordinate system was supported by the similar performances of the right-handed and left-handed groups. A discrepancy in this system was identified when visual feedback was provided for controlling the response to a location previously learned with kinesthetic cues.     

The effect of attentional focus cues on object control performance in elementary children

Background and purpose: Attentional focus cues have been shown to impact motor performance of adults and children. Specifically, an external focus of attention results in improved motor learning and performance as compared to adopting an internal focus of attention. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an internal and external attentional focus cue on children’s object control skill performance during a commonly used motor skill assessment.

Methods: Using a within-participant design, a total of 44 children (M_age?=?7.7 years, 20 boys and 24 girls) completed all three attentional focus conditions. The object control subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2; Ulrich, 2000. Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Austin: Pro-Ed.) served as the motor skill assessment in present study. The TGMD-2 is a normed and criteria-referenced assessment frequently used to assess fundamental motor skill competence in children. The object control subtest of the TGMD-2 assesses a child’s ability to complete six fundamental motor skills – striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand throw, and underhand roll. All participants completed the object control subtest of the TGMD-2 under three different attentional focus conditions: baseline (i.e. neutral focus), internal, and external. The internal cue focused on movement performance and the external cue focused on movement outcome. In all three conditions, a video demonstration of proper skill performance was used to ensure no difference in visual demonstration, but the overlaying audio was changed to encompass each attentional focus condition. Children’s motor performance was recorded and later coded by a single researcher blinded to the study. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to determine if children’s motor scores changed among the three conditions.

Results: Findings demonstrated that children’s performance differed among the three conditions (F_(2,43)?=?3.5, p?Post hoc analysis revealed that children scored significantly better in the external cue condition compared to the baseline (difference?=?1.98, p?Conclusion: Children performed better when given a verbal instruction to focus their attention externally rather than a verbal instruction with no attentional focus cue. No significant differences exist between the internal and external focus condition or between the neutral and internal condition. Our findings align with the literature and support that external attentional focus cues have a positive effect on motor performance. From a teaching and learning standpoint, using consistent instructions appears to be essential for young learners. Slight changes in verbal cues can have a significant effect on how well children execute fundamental motor skills.     

Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning

The authors examined the individual and combined influences of 2 factors that have been shown to benefit motor learning: an external focus of attention and enhanced performance expectancies. Another purpose of this study was to gain further insight into the mechanisms underlying these variables. In a factorial design, participants learning a novel motor skill (i.e., throwing with the non-dominant arm) were or were not given external focus instructions, and were or were not provided bogus positive social-comparative feedback to enhance their expectancies. This resulted in 4 groups: external focus, enhanced expectancy, external focus/enhanced expectancy and control. External focus instructions and enhanced expectancies had additive benefits for learning: the external focus/enhanced expectancy group demonstrated the greatest throwing accuracy on both retention and transfer tests, while the accuracy scores of the external focus and enhanced expectancy groups were lower, but higher than those of the control group. Furthermore, self-efficacy was increased by both external focus and enhanced expectancy, and predicted retention and transfer performance. Positive affect was heightened in the enhanced expectancy and external focus/enhanced expectancy groups after practice and predicted transfer performance. The findings suggest that the learning benefits of an external focus and enhanced expectancies mediate learning through partially different mechanisms.     

Forthcoming events

Abstract

We conducted two experiments to assess the effect attentional focus has on learning a complex motor skill and subsequent performance under secondary task loading. Participants in Experiment 1 learnt a golf putting task (300 practice trials) with a single instruction to either focus on their hands (internal focus) or the movement of the putter (external focus). No group differences were evident during learning or retention. Differences between the groups were only apparent under secondary task load; the external group's performance remained robust, while the internal group suffered a drop in performance. Verbal protocols demonstrated that the internal group accumulated significantly more internal knowledge and more task-relevant knowledge in general than the external group. Experiment 2 was designed to establish whether greater internal focus knowledge or greater explicit rule build up in general was responsible for performance breakdown. Two groups were presented with a set of six internal or external rules. Again, no performance differences were found during learning or retention. During the secondary task, both groups experienced performance deterioration. It was concluded that accumulation of explicit rules to guide performance was responsible for the internal group's breakdown in performance under secondary task loading and may be responsible for some of the performance differences reported previously.     

Benefits of an external focus of attention: common coding or conscious processing?

We conducted two experiments to assess the effect attentional focus has on learning a complex motor skill and subsequent performance under secondary task loading. Participants in Experiment 1 learnt a golf putting task (300 practice trials) with a single instruction to either focus on their hands (internal focus) or the movement of the putter (external focus). No group differences were evident during learning or retention. Differences between the groups were only apparent under secondary task load; the external group's performance remained robust, while the internal group suffered a drop in performance. Verbal protocols demonstrated that the internal group accumulated significantly more internal knowledge and more task-relevant knowledge in general than the external group. Experiment 2 was designed to establish whether greater internal focus knowledge or greater explicit rule build up in general was responsible for performance breakdown. Two groups were presented with a set of six internal or external rules. Again, no performance differences were found during learning or retention. During the secondary task, both groups experienced performance deterioration. It was concluded that accumulation of explicit rules to guide performance was responsible for the internal group's breakdown in performance under secondary task loading and may be responsible for some of the performance differences reported previously.     

Improved children’s motor learning of the basketball free shooting pattern by associating subjective error estimation and extrinsic feedback

This study aimed at assessing the interaction between subjective error estimation and frequency of extrinsic feedback in the learning of the basketball free shooting pattern by children. 10- to 12-year olds were assigned to 1 of 4 groups combining subjective error estimation and relative frequency of extrinsic feedback (33% × 100%). Analysis of performance was based on quality of movement pattern. Analysis showed superior learning of the group combining error estimation and 100% feedback frequency, both groups receiving feedback on 33% of trials achieved intermediate results, and the group combining no requirement of error estimation and 100% feedback frequency had the poorest learning. Our results show the benefit of subjective error estimation in association with high frequency of extrinsic feedback in children’s motor learning of a sport motor pattern.     

Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years

Over the past 15 years, research on focus of attention has consistently demonstrated that an external focus (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). This article provides a comprehensive review of the extant literature. Findings show that the performance and learning advantages through instructions or feedback inducing an external focus extend across different types of tasks, skill levels, and age groups. Benefits are seen in movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, consistency, balance) as well as efficiency (e.g., muscular activity, force production, cardiovascular responses). Methodological issues that have arisen in the literature are discussed. Finally, our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect is outlined, and directions for future research are suggested.     

False-performance feedback does not affect punching forces and pacing of elite boxers

Prior research indicates that providing participants with positive augmented feedback tends to enhance motor learning and performance, whereas the opposite occurs with negative feedback. However, the majority of studies were conducted with untrained participants performing unfamiliar motor tasks and so it remains unclear if elite athletes completing familiar tasks respond in a similar fashion. Thus, this study investigated the effects of three different versions of false-performance feedback on punching force (N), pacing (force over time) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in 15 elite amateur male boxers. Athletes completed a simulated boxing bout consisting of three rounds with 84 maximal effort punches delivered to a punching integrator on four separate days. Day one was a familiarisation session in which no feedback was provided. In the following three days athletes randomly received false-positive, false-negative and false-neutral feedback on their punching performance between each round. No statistical or meaningful differences were observed in punching forces, pacing or RPE between conditions (P > 0.05; ≤ 2%). These null results could stem from the elite status of the athletes involved, the focus on performance rather than learning, or they may indicate that false feedback has a less potent effect on performance than previously thought.     

Causal Attributions following Success and Failure at an Achievement Motor Task

Abstract

Past research has shown that success is predominantly attributed to internal factors and failure attributed to external factors. The purpose of the present experiment was to determine whether this attributional pattern was also found when subjects were performing a motor task. The degree of ego involvement in the task (evaluation) and the effect of prior practice (novelty) were also investigated in order to determine the extent to which these variables affect subjects' self-attributions. Thus, the effects of ego involvement and past experience following success and failure on causal attributions were investigated in a 2 × 2 × 2 (evaluation × novelty × outcome) factorial design with 80 college undergraduates. The task was a motor maze. Consistent with past research, subjects showed a relative tendency toward internal attributions over external attributions and a tendency toward stable attributions over unstable attributions. Moreover, success increased the relative bias toward internal attributions. However, evaluation apprehension and experience with the motor task did not interact with outcome to affect internal and external attributions.     

The Role of Interference and Task Similarity on the Acquisition,Retention, and Transfer of Simple Motor Skills

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to determine if two levels of task similarity influenced acquisition, retention, and transfer performance of three simple motor skills. Sixty right-handed subjects were randomly assigned to one of five (n = 12) experimental conditions. Each subject performed 72 trials during acquisition. Twenty-four trials were recorded for each movement task. Following a 5-min unfilled retention interval, subjects performed 4 trials on each task before completing 12 transfer trials of a novel movement. Contextual interference effects for acquisition and retention were supported for low but not high similarity tasks. Further, the results suggest that a different memory representation exists for high and low similarity tasks.