Language,education and ethnicity: Whose rights will prevail in an age of globalisation?

Education and ethnicity cannot be discussed without taking language into account. This paper will argue that any discussion of ethnic minorities cannot ignore the question of language, nor can any discussion of human rights ignore the question of language rights. Unfortunately, in today's globalised world, governments and minorities are faced with conflicting pressures: on the one hand, for the development and use of education in a global/international language; on the other for the use and development of mother tongue, local or indigenous languages in education. Language complexity and ethnic plurality were largely brought about as a result of the creation of nation–states, which were spread around the world as a result of European colonialism. European languages and formal education systems were used as a means of political and economic control. The legacy that was left by the colonial powers has complicated ethnic relations and has frequently led to conflict. While there is now greater recognition of the importance of language both for economic and educational development, as well as for human rights, the forces of globalisation are leading towards uniformity in the languages used, in culture and even in education. They are working against the development of language rights for smaller groups. We are witnessing a sharp decline in the number of languages spoken. Only those languages which are numerically, economically and politically strong are likely to survive. As a result many linguistic and ethnic groups are in danger of being further marginalised. This paper will illustrate this thesis both historically and from several contemporary societies, showing how certain policies have exacerbated ethnic conflict while others are seeking to promote harmony and reconciliation. Why this should be so will be explored.     

Language of learning and teaching in schools: an issue for research in mathematics teacher education?

Most countries in Africa have introduced the use of local languages as the language of learning and teaching for the first few years of schooling. Meaning that for the first few years of learning, learners learn mathematics in their local languages. In response to this, most research has focused on the challenges of using local languages in multilingual mathematics classrooms in schools. Not much research focuses on how the teacher educators prepare the prospective teachers to teach mathematics in multilingual classrooms. To further knowledge in the area of multilingualism in mathematics education, I, in this paper, present an analysis of the literature on multilingual teacher education in Africa. Specifically, I look at what it is that governments in interested countries are doing in teacher education programs in response to the introduction of local languages in schools. From the literature examined, I found that although there is awareness in a number of countries of the need for multilingual teacher education, not much has been done in order to train mathematics teachers on how to use local languages in the classroom. I therefore recommend that, for those countries that have implemented or planning to introduce the use of local languages in schools, some reforms should also take place in teacher education programs in terms of training the prospective teachers how to teach in local languages.     

Arabic sign language: a perspective

Sign language in the Arab World has been recently recognized and documented. Many efforts have been made to establish the sign language used in individual countries, including Jordan, Egypt, Libya, and the Gulf States, by trying to standardize the language and spread it among members of the Deaf community and those concerned. Such efforts produced many sign languages, almost as many as Arabic-speaking countries, yet with the same sign alphabets. This article gives a tentative account of some sign languages in Arabic through reference to their possible evolution, which is believed to be affected by the diglossic situation in Arabic, and by comparing some aspects of certain sign languages (Jordanian, Palestinian, Egyptian, Kuwaiti, and Libyan) for which issues such as primes, configuration, and movement in addition to other linguistic features are discussed. A contrastive account that depicts the principal differences among Arabic sign languages in general and the spoken language is given.     

“政治正确”与美国英语中的种族歧视性语言

通过对席卷美国的＂政治正确＂运动的源头的追溯可以探寻其产生的某些社会文化因素,了解现代美国社会对种族歧视性语言的纠正状况。以改变针对非裔和亚裔美国人的歧视性语言为代表的＂政治正确＂运动在体现其初衷并取得显著成果的同时也不可避免地出现＂过犹不及＂之处。＂政治正确＂运动的倡导者若要实现其宗旨就应尊重语言发展的规律,而当今世界各国多民族、多元社文化共存的现实所带来的各种碰撞也是许多国家面临的重大问题。     

The Modern Mission: The Language Effects of Christianity

Christian missionaries have played a crucial role not only in assisting past and current forms of colonialism and neocolonialism, not only in attacking and destroying other ways of being, but also in terms of the language effects their projects have engendered. The choices missionaries have made to use local or European languages have been far more than a mere choice of medium. On the one hand, missionary language projects continue to use and promote European languages, and particularly English, for Christian purposes. The use of English language teaching as a means to convert the unsuspecting English language learner raise profound moral and political questions about what is going on in English classrooms around the world. On the other hand, missionary linguists have played a particular role in the construction and invention of languages around the world. Of particular concern here are the ways in which language use, and understandings of language use, have been-and still are-profoundly affected by missionary projects. Bilingualism between indigenous languages and a metropolitan language, for example, was part of a conservative missionary agenda in which converting to Christianity was the inevitable process of being bilingual. The ongoing legacy of the language effects of Christianity is something that needs urgent attention.     

The Analysis of the differences in languages between the genders from the Perspective of Socio-psycholinguistics

The gender difference in languages has existed in human society,dating back to ancient times.On the one hand,the physiological traits differences cause the language differences; On the other hand,the Social psychological difference also plays an important role.Because the gender difference has been demonized over centuries,female's subordinate position leads to the unfair treatment and the discrimination.This paper will analyze the reasons for the gender differences in languages from the perspective of socio-psycholinguistics and use it to discuss how to use language power to eliminate sexual discrimination and help female to reach equality between men and women.     

身体语言:在不同文化中的同与异

作为一种非言语语言,并不是所有的身体语言在不同文化中都有着相同的含义。一方面,在不同文化中,身体语言存在共同性,这包括:1)人类共同享有的生物特性;2)不同文化中相同的社会特性;3)不同文化中,作用相同;4)文化区别缩小。另一方面,身体语言在不同文化中的不同点包括:1)不同身体语言,相同信息;2)相同身体语言,不同含义;3)一些身体语言仅存在特定国家;4)一些身体语言虽存在于特定国家,但不存在特定含义。所以我们有必要知道身体语言在不同文化中的同与异。     

浅谈日汉语附和语的类型比较

日语的"附和语(あいづち)"一直以来都是日语学习与运用的难点。但笔者通过研究发现,中文中也存在类似的成分。日汉附和语在类型上存在许多相似之处,同时也有许多的差异。明晰两者的异同,将有助于学习者更好的掌握不同语言的表达习惯。     

Thread,Web and Tapestry‐making: processes of development and language

Development models have moved away from the simple export or imitation of western patterns towards local ownership and participatory approaches. This movement has brought with it increasing attention to the place of culture, ethnicity and language in development. In situations of high linguistic diversity, debate has concentrated largely on language choice and use in the formal educational system without reference to wider participatory processes of development in the community. Questions of language choice in both education and development are, however, crucial where local community languages have little written tradition and may have been considered of too little significance to develop. This article will review the major features of participatory development and ask how far similar processes have been or might be applied in promoting the use of local languages for such development. These questions will be explored in selected African contexts. How does intervention for language development dovetail with other kinds of development intervention? What is the interplay between the cultural basis of participatory development and the expression of ethnic identity through local languages? What lessons might be drawn from participatory development for community‐based processes of language development? How significant is the notion of empowerment with regard to the linguistic resources of a community? In conclusion, the article will argue that language development processes must figure prominently in participatory approaches to development multilingual environments and that attention to language must proceed along similar participatory lines.     

Language policy and science: Could some African countries learn from some Asian countries?

This article deals with the fact that most children in Africa are taught in a language neither they nor their teachers master, resulting in poor education outcomes. While there are also donor interests and donor competition involved in retaining ex-colonial languages, as well as an African elite that may profit from this system, one of the main reasons why teaching in ex-colonial languages persists lies in the fact that a large proportion of the general public still believes that the best way to learn a foreign language is to have it as a language of instruction. By contrast, research studies conducted in Africa, as well as examples from Asian countries such as Sri Lanka and Malaysia, have shown that children actually learn mathematics and science much better in local and familiar languages. Though the recent World Bank Education Strategy policy paper is entitled Learning for All, it does not specify which language learning should take place in. A claim one often hears in countries of so-called Anglophone Africa is that English is the language of science and technology, and that teaching these subjects through English (instead of teaching English as a subject in its own right as a foreign language) is best. The monolingual island of Zanzibar is in fact about to reintroduce English as the language of instruction in maths and science from grade 5 onwards in primary school. The author of this paper suggests that when it comes to language policy, some African and some Asian countries could learn from each other.     

Major and minor languages in complex linguistic ecologies: the Nigerian experience

It is generally accepted that Nigeria has at least 400 indigenous languages in addition to English, Arabic and Pidgin. The Nigerian language space contains a variety of microcultures and many traditional ethnolinguistic groups. Due to the extremely complex and complicated linguistic ecology, successive governments have found it difficult to take a bold and clear policy position on languages within the country. The boldest policy statements yet are those in the 1979 Constitution and in the National Policy on Education. When read in conjunction, the provisions lead to the conclusion that government recognizes Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as the three major languages which have official recognition. No clear statements are made on the other languages, a situation that has engendered a feeling of alienation and frustration in speakers of those languages. This paper will look at the antecedents of these policies, the tensions generated by them and the implications of language practices in education in different parts of Nigeria, as well as the psychological effects of belonging to major or minor language groups within the country.     

The politics of ESOL (English for speakers of other languages): implications for citizenship and social justice

A number of countries in Europe, including the UK, have adopted language and citizenship tests or courses as a requirement for granting citizenship to immigrants. To acquire citizenship, immigrants to the UK must pass a test on British society and culture, or demonstrate progress in the English language. For those with an insufficient command of the language, there is the option in the UK of taking an English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) with citizenship course. These language and citizenship tests and courses are seen by governments as a way of encouraging immigrants to develop the competences believed necessary for social integration. Equally, these are seen as a means for immigrants to demonstrate their willingness to integrate. However, two types of criticisms have been made against compulsory tests and language programmes. The first questions the need for these. The second focuses on whether they are a genuine contribution to preparation for citizenship or whether these, in effect, constitute a gatekeeping mechanism, or otherwise lead to social injustice; related to this is the question of whether the emphasis on language as defining of nationhood and citizenship is a move away from multiculturalism towards a policy of assimilation. In addition, there are issues relating to funding. This paper presents the results of a study of a ‘skills for life’ ESOL course at a community college in London that is specifically intended to help immigrants seeking to qualify for British citizenship. An interview was carried out with staff involved in ESOL at the college, and a focus group discussion was conducted with a student group. The aim of the paper is to provide an account of the experiences of the students in the light of the criticisms that have made against compulsory tests and language programmes. We also examine the impact of policy changes, including funding cuts, on the college and students. Although we found the language and citizenship class to be a positive experience, we note inconsistencies and contradictions in policies and discourses around language.     

西方国家外国语教学情况刍议

比较世界其它国家和地区,西方国家的外国语教学无疑历史最悠久,成就最显著。其所以能取得这样的成果,除了若干客观条件,如国家林立、语言众多等之外,还在于它们基于实际需要在这一方面作出了主观努力,包括政府重视、民众关注、理论先导、体制保证等等。     

二外日语教学探讨

从某种程度上讲,日语已成为我国外语学习者的第二大语种。这对于以汉语为母语的学习者来说,无疑是有益于学习的事情。但另一方面,由于第一外语与第二外语两种语言语系间的差异,以及学习者习得第一外语的时间相对较长,对此形成了一种较为固定的语言模式的认识,大部分学习者认为二外掌握起来难度较大。因此,兼顾第一外语与二外日语教学的进度显得尤为重要。     

英语歧义简析

歧义现象在任何语言中都普遍存在,英语也不例外.英语歧义现象的产生原因有多种,大体可分为语音歧义、词汇歧义和句法歧义.英语歧义句可使语义含糊不清,妨碍人们正常交流,另一方面,正确的理解和恰当的运用英语歧义,可以使我们的语言更加生动、形象.     

跨文化交际中的肢体语言

肢体语言与学外语一样,都是文化的一部分。除一些世界公认的肢体语言外,不同的文化还有各自的肢体语言。跨文化交际时,相同的肢体语言形式可能具有完全不同的意义。本文简单对比中关肢体语言的差别,并介绍了一些国外常用的肢体语言,以此来说明在学习外语的同时,多了解一些国外常用的肢体语言是会有帮助作用的。     

LISP

This article discusses the programming language LISP. The language was created by John McCarthy for an artificial intelligence application. LISP was the first functional language based on a mathematical theory of computation. It has been standardized and is still used fairly widely. The language also had a huge influence on later languages. Its implementation introduced interpreted languages, source-level debugging and garbage collection. These facilities are a common denominator for many languages today. We discuss the mathematical foundations of LISP the interpreter and briefly touch on its influence on other languages and its status today.     

谈“网络语言”的影响

随着网络的迅速发展,出现了网络语言。这些网络语言,有的新奇、时尚、活泼、简洁,有的不合逻辑、生涩难懂、浅薄低俗。网络语言的出现对语言的发展既有积极作用,也有负面影响。