Exploring the duality between product and organizational architectures: A test of the “mirroring” hypothesis

A variety of academic studies argue that a relationship exists between the structure of an organization and the design of the products that this organization produces. Specifically, products tend to “mirror” the architectures of the organizations in which they are developed. This dynamic occurs because the organization's governance structures, problem solving routines and communication patterns constrain the space in which it searches for new solutions. Such a relationship is important, given that product architecture has been shown to be an important predictor of product performance, product variety, process flexibility and even the path of industry evolution.We explore this relationship in the software industry. Our research takes advantage of a natural experiment, in that we observe products that fulfill the same function being developed by very different organizational forms. At one extreme are commercial software firms, in which the organizational participants are tightly-coupled, with respect to their goals, structure and behavior. At the other, are open source software communities, in which the participants are much more loosely-coupled by comparison. The mirroring hypothesis predicts that these different organizational forms will produce products with distinctly different architectures. Specifically, loosely-coupled organizations will develop more modular designs than tightly-coupled organizations. We test this hypothesis, using a sample of matched-pair products.We find strong evidence to support the mirroring hypothesis. In all of the pairs we examine, the product developed by the loosely-coupled organization is significantly more modular than the product from the tightly-coupled organization. We measure modularity by capturing the level of coupling between a product's components. The magnitude of the differences is substantial—up to a factor of six, in terms of the potential for a design change in one component to propagate to others. Our results have significant managerial implications, in highlighting the impact of organizational design decisions on the technical structure of the artifacts that these organizations subsequently develop.     

Toward a systematic framework for research on dominant designs, technological innovations, and industrial change

The concept of a dominant design has taken on a quasi-paradigmatic status in analyses of the link between technological and industrial dynamics. A review of the empirical literature reveals a variety of interpretations about some aspects of the phenomenon such as its underlying causal mechanisms and its level of analysis. To stimulate further progress in empirical research on dominant designs, we advocate a standardization of terminology by conceptualizing products as complex artifacts that evolve in the form of a nested hierarchy of technology cycles. Such a nested complex system perspective provides both unambiguous definitions of dominant designs (stable core components that can be stable interfaces) and inclusion of multiple levels of analysis (system, subsystems, components). We introduce the concept of an operational principle and offer a systematic definition of core and peripheral subsystems based on the concept of pleiotropy. We also discuss how the proposed terminological standardization can stimulate cumulative research on dominant designs.     

From transaction to transformation costs: The case of Polaroid's SX-70 camera

Innovation in a product's design can have significant implications for the organization of competencies across a production network. Currently, discussions on product designs and the distribution of competencies across production networks are based on transaction costs considerations. However, such a view does not consider the transformation costs that arise when competencies across a production network are reorganized because of design changes. We explore the nature of these costs by examining the dynamics associated with Polaroid Corporation's greatest innovation, the SX-70 camera. Our longitudinal study suggests that it is not costless to redraw the boundaries of a firm. In the SX-70 camera case, Polaroid's relationships with its important stakeholders were adversely affected resulting in a deterioration of its competitive position. From this study, we suggest that it is critical to consider the transformation costs involved with radical innovations in order to gain a more complete picture of change in systemic industries.     

几种软件体系结构的比较研究

软件体系结构是整个软件设计成功的基础,它是进行项目可行性、工程复杂性、工程进展、投资规模和风险预测等的重要依据。本文对当前主要的五种软件体系结构理论作了一些比较研究,为广大软件研究者进行软件开发理论与实践提供了重要的启发与参考。     

N层架构及其在网上问卷调查系统中的应用

本文介绍了N层架构,以及N层架构在网上问卷调查系统中的应用。     

软件自愈研究

保证软件系统的可信性是软件领域的一个关键问题,本文提出了软件可信的三个维度,即可信性度量模型、可信性分析和可信性设计与控制。在第三个维度当中软件自愈是一个重要方面,重点论述了当前软件自愈的研究进展。     

自适应系统软件体系结构的探讨

本文从软件体系结构的角度出发,针对微观层面上的自适应构件和宏观层面上的自适应体系结构描述和分析,研究了自适应系统软件体系结构的基础理论和关键技术,包括对自适应系统软件体系结构的现状及面临问题、冲突管理方法及预见式自适应框架的构造。     

基于构件的高校科研管理系统设计与实现

本文对当前高校科研管理系统的现状进行了分析,结合现代高校在信息化过程中所遇到的具体问题和需求,通过应用软件构件技术来提高系统的可适应性,设计和实现了该教务管理系统。     

Research on technology standards: Accomplishment and challenges

In this paper, we organize the fragmented management literature on technology standards according to a meta-theoretical scheme originally proposed by Astley and Van de Ven. We review over 89 relevant papers in influential journals in management, marketing and management-related disciplines. We observe that cumulative research streams on this topic have stayed within a single central perspective, that the development of research across the four central perspectives has been uneven, and that works incorporating multiple central perspectives have been few. We argue for complex models that take into account the two boundary conditions—technological complexity and institutional environment—that have been implicit in the extant literature. We also argue for theoretically grounded works in the collective action and strategic choice views, but the greatest opportunity lies in integrative works that will take us one step closer to a comprehensive view of technology standards.     

基于微服务架构的信息资源服务平台的构建研究

从软件架构角度开展信息资源服务平台构建研究,首先介绍微服务架构内涵,并对与微服务相关的关键技术进行阐述,最后构建基于微服务架构的信息资源服务平台技术实现框架。以期为我国信息资源服务平台建设提供借鉴与参考。     

机载任务系统软件性能架构设计

软件系统架构设计中,非功能需求是重要组成部分之一,甚至会直接决定架构的组成。基于性能这一软件的质量属性,对某机载任务系统软件架构设计进行了分析。     

基于质量属性的系统构架分析与实践

本文概要地介绍了软件构架的有关理论和概念,阐述了软件构架技术的设计思想和过程。探讨了系统开发过程中,如何根据系统的需求和质量属性来构建软件系统。考虑到项目的行业特殊性,利用软件构架理论对电子商务系统进行了分析和论述,从而在实践中论证了软件构架在提高系统的性能、安全性、可扩光性和易用性方面的现实意义。     

GPS车辆监控系统软件架构设计

介绍了基于GPS技术的车辆监控系统原理,讨论了系统中软件架构的设计原则和实现思路。车辆监控系统由车辆调度中心、无线通信网络和车载设备组成。软件架构设计包括架构的选型和相关技术的运用,并详细讨论了通信平台的设计。     

电动车组电气配线工艺设计系统的研发

针对电气配线数据管理的实际业务需求展开讨论,针对基于此需求构建的电动车组电气配线工艺设计系统进行详细描述,从电气配线业务需求、系统架构设计、系统实现以及实施等诸多方面进行简要描述,并对该系统在未来电气配线数据管理中的作用提出新的技术展望。     

基于顾客需求的数显卡尺产品设计研究

伴随着科学的发展,企业面临的环境更加的复杂,要使得企业在市场竞争中脱颖而出,则需要进行产品的创新设计。如何以顾客需求为导向进行产品设计则是企业应该思考的问题。质量功能展开技术（QFD）作为一种传统产品设计工具在产品设计中已有很高的地位,它是强调以顾客需求为导向,将顾客的需求贯穿于产品设计的始终。而价值工程（VE）理论作为一种产品功能的分析工具,能将功能需求进行合理的转化为产品的零部件要求。两者的基础都以功能需求导向,能更好的将顾客的需求体现在产品设计中。二者有机的结合能消除产品质量的隐患,提高产品的核心竞争力。     

专利资助管理系统功能分析与设计

专利资助管理系统是顺应我国专利发展战略,有效提高专利资助管理工作效率而开发的一套软件管理系统。该系统可对各省知识产权局及其下属专利服务单位的专利申请数据进行收集、加工、处理和快速提交,以实现向省知识产权局集中专利信息和分布式服务的功能。本文着重介绍了专利资助管理系统的体系结构、总体功能模块和数据库设计。     

How user innovations become commercial products: A theoretical investigation and case study

In this paper we model the pathways commonly traversed as user innovations are transformed into commercial products. First, one or more users recognize a new set of design possibilities and begin to innovate. They then join into communities, motivated by the increased efficiency of collective innovation. User-manufacturers then emerge, using high-variable/low-capital cost production methods. Finally, as user innovation slows, the market stabilizes enough for high-capital, low-variable cost manufacturing to enter. We test the model against the history of the rodeo kayak industry and find it supported. We discuss implications for “dominant design” theory and for innovation practice.     

Dominance in the prototyping phase—The case of hydrogen passenger cars

The notion of dominant designs refers to dominance in the market, hence the literature on dominant designs ignores the selection process that already takes place in pre-market R&D stages of technological innovation. In this paper we address the question to what extent pre-market selection takes place within an industry and how this may lead to dominance of one design over others before the market comes into play. Furthermore we study what selection criteria apply in the absence of actual market criteria. We do so through a historical analysis of design paths for hydrogen passenger cars.We argue that prototypes are used by firms in their internal search process towards new designs and at the same time as means of communicating technological expectations to competitors and outsiders. In both senses, prototypes can be taken as indicators of design paths in the ongoing search process of an industry.We analyzed the designs of prototypes of hydrogen passenger cars from the 1970s till 2008. A database is compiled of 224 prototypes of hydrogen passenger cars, listing the car's manufacturer, year of construction, hydrogen conversion technology, fuel cell type, and capacity of its hydrogen storage system. The analysis shows to what extent one design gained dominance and which strategies were adopted by the firms in their search processes.We conclude that indeed a dominant prototyping design has emerged: the fuel cell combined with high pressure gaseous storage. Actual and expected performance acted as selection criterion, but so did regulation and strategic behaviour of the firms. Especially imitation dynamics, with industry leaders and followers, is a major explanatory factor. Our main theoretical claim is that the selection of a dominant prototyping design is based on an interaction of sets of expectations about future performance of technological components and regulatory pressure that results in herding behaviour of the firms.     

电子整机装备三化工作难点及解决方法研究

分析电子整机装备三化工作存在的问题,总结企业三化管理体系建设经验,针对三化工作在组织与架构方面的难点问题,提出以\"总体牵引、专业拉通\"为核心理念建立三化工作组织,以\"市场+技术、总体+专业、平台+模块\"的综合方法构建三化顶层规划,并给出具体方法和实际成效.对其他复杂产品系统开展三化工作也具有借鉴意义.