CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVENTION RESEARCH IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY JOURNALS: 2010–2014

The purpose of this study was to provide an updated content analysis of articles published in major journals of school psychology spanning the years 2010–2014, with an emphasis on intervention research (including intervention and participant characteristics). Six journals—School Psychology Review, School Psychology Quarterly, Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology International, and Journal of Applied School Psychology—were selected for the analysis. Over the 5‐year period, 1,196 articles were published in the selected journals. A total of 65.8% of the articles were empirical articles; intervention studies with school‐age samples comprised 11.1% of all articles. Within the intervention studies, single subject represented the most frequently used research design (40.6%). Further, 58.6% of the intervention studies did not provide sufficient information to discern participants’ disability status. Although the proportion of empirically based articles has increased in recent years, that of intervention articles has remained low.     

Making Sense of Single‐Case Design Effect Sizes

Single‐case research methods provide a basis for demonstrating that an intervention produces a reliable change in a targeted outcome for individual cases. To supplement visual analysis of data in single‐case studies, researchers frequently report statistics—often referred to as effect sizes—to summarize study findings. The recent proliferation of effect sizes used in single‐case research can be confusing. In this article, after reviewing single‐case research, we provide an overview of common types of effect sizes used in single‐case research, including overlap metrics and within‐ and between‐participant effect sizes, and conclude with examples of these effect sizes in the single‐case literature. Our take‐home message is that effect sizes are useful complements to visual analysis when interpreting results of single‐case design research studies.     

New Beginnings: evaluation of a short social–emotional intervention for primary‐aged children

We report on an effectiveness trial of ‘New Beginnings’, a short social–emotional intervention for primary‐aged children. The sample comprised 253 children (aged 6–11) attending 37 primary schools across England. Data on social and emotional competence and mental health difficulties were collected using child self‐report, and parent‐ and teacher‐informant report questionnaires in a pre‐test–post‐test control group design. One hundred and fifty‐nine children took part in the intervention, and 94 children acted as a comparison group. Children in the intervention group attended weekly 45‐minute small group sessions for seven weeks. Child self‐report data indicated that the intervention was successful in promoting social and emotional competence, and that improvements were sustained at seven‐week follow‐up. However, this finding was not replicated in either the teacher or parental data. We conclude that future iterations of the intervention may need to be more intensive and lengthy in order to produce changes in behaviour that are salient to teachers and parents.     

Reading and spelling gains following one year of Orton‐Gillingham intervention in Singaporean students with dyslexia

Despite the widespread use of Orton‐Gillingham (OG) based approaches to dyslexia remediation, empirical support documenting its effectiveness is lacking. Recently, Chia and Houghton demonstrated the effectiveness of the OG approach for remediation of dyslexia in Singapore. As a conceptual replication and extension of that research, we report results of 39 students with dyslexia aged between six and 14 years enrolled in an OG intervention programme over a period of one year in a single‐subject research (pre‐test/post‐test) design. Analyses of variance showed that students significantly improved in standardised tests of reading and spelling with moderate effect sizes (Cohen's d = 0.52–0.58). Additionally, an inverse relationship was found between students' ages when they began intervention and gains made during the intervention. Results thus indicate the effectiveness of an OG approach in remediating literacy difficulties in students with dyslexia and, taken together with previous studies, further suggest the importance of early identification and intervention.     

The use of touch devices for enhancing academic achievement: A meta‐analysis

Touch devices such as tablets and smartphones are widely adopted in educational settings and have many desirable features. However, research supporting the use of touch devices to improve academic achievement is emergent and has not been evaluated through a meta‐analysis. We conducted a meta‐analysis of 65 group and single case design research studies, published 2010–2018, to evaluate the effects of touch device implementation on academic achievement. The overall mean effect sizes were moderate for group design and single case design studies. Participant, intervention, and study attributes were also evaluated to describe the research and how these attributes may moderate the results. Overall, results suggest that touch devices may be an effective tool for enhancing academic achievement. The need to conduct additional, rigorous research on the use of touch devices as well as implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.     

Effectiveness of school‐based psychotherapy: A meta‐analysis of dissertation research

A meta‐analysis was conducted with 65 school‐based psychotherapy and counseling dissertations over the last 10 years (1998–2008) to assess if a file‐drawer problem (i.e., studies conducted but not published that, as a whole, have different results than studies in the same area published) exists in the school‐based outcome literature. An overall mean effect size of 0.44 was found for 73 treatment interventions. This effect size is comparable to Prout and DeMartino's 1986 meta‐analysis conducted with published school‐based studies and approximately half a standard deviation smaller than Prout and Prout's 1998 meta‐analysis of school‐based intervention studies. A bias does appear to exist but seems to be smaller than the bias found in the general child and adolescent psychotherapy outcome literature. Most of the dissertation studies evaluated group interventions and used a cognitive–behavioral or skills training intervention. Skills training and interventions with elementary‐school students yielded the largest effect sizes. Comparisons of the current study with previous school‐based intervention meta‐analyses are discussed as are suggestions for future research. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A critical review of self‐regulated learning interventions for children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder

School practitioners and educators are frequently challenged by the diverse and pervasive academic and behavioral needs of children at risk for and with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This paper examines the outcome literature on self‐regulated learning (SRL) interventions for youth with ADHD by systematically reviewing the key intervention components and methodologies used. A total of 34 investigations, including 297 children and adolescents, were reviewed and coded on 34 variables across two dimensions (i.e., intervention components and methodology). In general, SRL interventions can be represented in terms of a three‐phase model of SRL that includes forethought, performance control, and self‐reflection processes. In this review, the vast majority of the published literature used single‐case design studies with a singular focus on the phase of performance control. Weaknesses of the existing literature include a lack of follow‐up data, attrition data, demographic information about teachers or other adult participants, and diversity in the sample. Strengths of the outcome literature are that a majority of the studies reported inclusion/exclusion criteria for samples, the criteria used to diagnose children as ADHD, and clinical significance for assessing treatment outcomes. Findings are discussed in relation to previous research, as well as directions for research and practice.     

Using Human Givens therapy to support the well‐being of adolescents: a case example

This article outlines the use of Human Givens (HG) therapy with adolescents reporting poor subjective well‐being. HG therapy is based on the assumption that human beings have innate needs, which, if unmet, lead to emotional distress and mental health problems. Hitherto, there has been no independently published empirical research into the efficacy of HG as a therapeutic intervention with young people. The article examines the theory and background to HG therapy; the emotional well‐being of children; and young people and counselling and therapeutic interventions in schools, before describing an exploratory case study into the effectiveness of the HG approach. This involves assessing the efficacy of an individual HG intervention for three young people reporting high anxiety or depression and/or low self concept. The HG process and therapy structure are detailed through an illustrative case study regarding a 16‐year‐old girl with moderate levels of anxiety and low self‐concept. Positive outcomes are observed for all three young people, providing tentative evidence that HG therapy might be useful to practitioners delivering therapeutic interventions in schools, although limitations of the small‐scale research design are highlighted. Issues relating to the provision of individual therapeutic interventions in school are discussed more widely, as are other possible applications of the HG approach in schools.     

Daily report cards as a school‐based intervention for children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder

This paper describes daily report cards and the evidence relating to their use in schools for children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This intervention typically involves teachers evaluating a student's behaviour at school against pre‐determined targets and parents subsequently providing reinforcement at home for positive reports. Research suggests that the daily report card has been effective in treating a range of ADHD symptoms and improving school outcomes, including academic achievement in some cases. The daily report card also encourages collaboration between teachers and parents, and evidence suggests that the intervention benefits from the inclusion of reinforcement at home. Daily report cards are easy to implement and research finds that teachers consider them an acceptable intervention for ADHD. This paper also considers challenges in using daily report cards, including barriers to their use over the long‐term and the risk of stigma for children with a report card. Ideas to address these issues are suggested.     

Introduction to Special Issue: Null Effects and Publication Bias in Learning Disabilities Research

The importance of publishing studies with null findings to the scientific enterprise is garnering attention in social science at large and education in particular. In this article, we first define null findings and publication bias as they relate to group and single‐subject instructional intervention research. We then explore the prevalence of instructional intervention studies that report null findings in the learning disabilities literature. Overall, we found that few studies have been published in learning disability journals that reported all null results. However, a significant number of group studies reported mixed findings (i.e., at least one, but not all, outcome measures were not statistically significant). Next, we summarize the experimental studies that comprise this special issue on null findings. Last, we speculate regarding strategies that might be enacted to increase the publication of studies with null findings in the learning disabilities field.     

EXTENDING SELF‐MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: THE USE OF A CLASSWIDE APPROACH

Notwithstanding the wealth of research that documents the effectiveness of self‐management programs in the classroom, few investigations have explored classwide use of self‐management procedures as a universal intervention. To extend existing research in this area, we examined the effectiveness of a classwide self‐management intervention for decreasing disruptive behaviors among three at‐risk second‐grade students. We used a multiple baseline across subjects design and evaluated the effects of the self‐management program at both the individual and classwide levels during academic instruction time. Results of the study showed a decrease in disruptive behaviors of the target students and a general decrease in classroom disruptive behavior. In addition, teachers and students provided positive ratings of intervention acceptability and feasibility. Limitations, implications, and future directions for research are discussed.     

A Review of Recent Research on Individual‐Level Score Reports

As the primary interface between test developers and multiple educational stakeholders, score reports are a critical component to the success (or failure) of any assessment program. The purpose of this review is to document recent research on individual‐level score reporting to advance the research and practice of score reporting. We conducted a search for research studies published or presented between 2005 and 2015, examining 60 scholarly works for (1) the research focus, (2) stated or implied theoretical frameworks of communication, and (3) the characteristics of data sets employed in the studies. Results show that research on score properties, especially subscores, and score report design/layout are well‐represented in the literature base. The predominant approach to score reporting has been through a cybernetics tradition of communication. Data sets were often small or localized to a single context. We present example research questions from novel communication frameworks, and encourage our colleagues to adopt new roles in their relationships to stakeholders to advance score reporting research and practice.     

Intervention research productivity from 2005 to 2014: Faculty and university representation in school psychology journals

The purpose of this study was to identify authors and training programs making the most frequent contributions to intervention research published in six school psychology journals (School Psychology Review, School Psychology Quarterly, Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology International, and Journal of Applied School Psychology) over the 10‐year period from 2005 to 2014. A total of 310 articles were identified as intervention articles; 919 unique authors, representing 289 universities or organizations, contributed to these publications. Top‐ranked authors and universities were identified based on authorship rating and total publications, respectively. This evaluation highlights key contributors to the primary intervention research in school psychology, as well as themes of the publications of top‐ranked individuals and programs.     

A meta‐analysis of Tier 2 interventions implemented within School‐Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports

This meta‐analysis synthesized 26 published single‐case design (SCD) studies on Tier 2 behavior interventions implemented within the educational framework of school‐wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. We used Tau‐U indices to determine the overall magnitudes of effect of the Tier 2 behavior interventions and the potential variables that moderate improved student behavioral outcomes. The 26 studies that were analyzed included a total of 243 student participants. The studies were evaluated to determine whether and to what extent they met What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) SCD standards. Of these, 10 studies were confirmed as meeting WWC SCD standards with or without reservations. Notable findings were that outcomes for students in kindergarten and secondary grade levels were limited, and insufficient screening methods were used to identify and select students needing Tier 2 interventions. The results indicate that the literature reports Tier 2 interventions with effect sizes ranging from 0.26 to 0.98. Average effect size for social skills instruction was found to be large, whereas Check‐in/Check‐out, group contingency, and intervention packages had medium effect sizes. Moderator analyses indicated different effect sizes across intervention types, outcomes, and implementers. The results are discussed in relation to implications for practice, limitations, and future research.     

The problem with people

An increasing number of children and young people are being excluded from school as a direct result of anger management problems. The research literature suggests that short cognitive‐behavioural intervention programmes may be effective in helping young people understand and control their anger. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a short cognitive‐behavioural anger management intervention in reducing problem behaviours in school, and to identify factors that may facilitate or impede participant progress on such a programme. The sample comprised 12 young people (mean age 14y 2m) referred for anger problems in an inner‐city school in the north‐west of England. A phase change (baseline, intervention, follow‐up) design was implemented to measure changes in problem behaviours using the Revised Rutter Scale for Teachers. This was augmented by qualitative data gathered in interviews and non‐participant observations. Significant improvements in behaviour were observed as a result of the intervention, although for some domains this was not maintained at four‐week follow‐up. Analysis of qualitative data revealed a number of issues that might impact on the success of an intervention, including notions of power in the classroom, treatment readiness, and the importance of sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with others. Despite limitations inherent in the research design, the intervention was deemed a success. However, our findings show the need for researchers and practitioners alike to ‘look beyond the child’ when hypothesising about the causes of anger problems in educational contexts.     

How Design Experiments Can Inform Teaching and Learning: Teacher‐Researchers as Collaborators in Educational Research

In this commentary, I summarize my own research with colleagues to affirm Dr. Gersten's call for considering design experiments prior to conducting intervention research. I describe how design experiments not only can inform teaching and the learning of innovative approaches, but also hold the promise of effectively bridging the research‐to‐practice gap to produce meaningful change in practice when innovative practices are fine‐tuned and validated by partnerships with teacher‐researchers.     

English Reading Effects of Small‐Group Intensive Intervention in Spanish for K–1 English Learners

In this article we report small, but statistically significant, effects of brief supplemental instruction on English reading by Spanish‐speaking kindergartners (N = 37) who performed poorly on a bilingual battery of phonological‐processing tasks. Intervention design was compatible with the Reading First initiative and with research on use of multitiered intervention strategies for preventing reading failure among young monolingual students (e.g., L. S. Fuchs & Vaughn, 2003). We describe a Core Intervention Model (CIM) comprised of specific instructional behaviors that teachers might easily learn and employ regardless of curriculum, and discuss implications of our findings for building multitiered preventative instruction for young English learners.