Reading and spelling error analysis of native

This study was an investigation of reading and spelling errors of dyslexic Arabic readers (n=20) compared with two groups of normal readers: a young readers group, matched with the dyslexics by reading level (n=20) and an age-matched group (n=20). They were tested on reading and spelling of texts, isolated words and pseudowords. Two research questions were the focus of this study: What are the reading and spelling profile errors of dyslexic native Arabic speakers? What is the effect of the Arabic orthography on these types of errors? The results of the reading error analysis revealed a clear contribution of the uniqueness of the Arabic orthography to the types of errors made by the three different groups. In addition, the error profiles of the dyslexic readers were similar to the error profiles made by the younger reading-level-matched group in percentages and in quality. The most prominent types of errors were morphological and semiphonetic, which highlighted the contribution of the Arabic orthography to these types of errors. Consistently, the profile of the spelling errors was similar in percentages and quality among the dyslexics and the reading-level-matched group but different from the age-matched group on the spelling measures. The analysis of the spelling errors revealed that the dominant type of error was mostly phonetic due to the limited orthographic lexicon. In addition, the Arabic orthography also contributed to these types of errors because many spelling mistakes were made due to poor knowledge of the spelling rules. The results of the reading and spelling errors are discussed from a reading development point of view. Further, two models are suggested, one for reading and one for spelling, to illustrate the cognitive processes that underlie the reading and spelling mistakes in this type of orthography.     

Bannatyne's “genetic dyslexic” subtype: A validation study

Bannatyne's “genetic dyslexic” subtype of reading disability was evaluated using WISC-R data obtained from 140 disabled readers and their matched controls (total N = 280). Although a familial pattern of reading problems was present among the relatives of the disabled readers, it was not unique to the “genetic dyslexic” subtype. However, the predicted Spatial > Conceptual > Sequential pattern of means was found to be reliable and specific to the reading disabled sample.     

Identification of sub-types of students with learning disabilities in reading and its implications for Chinese word recognition and instructional methods in Hong Kong primary schools

This paper consists of three studies. The first study aimed to identify sub-types of students with learning disabilities in reading. Based on the dual-route model of reading, words may be read using either a lexical (words are recognized as wholes) or a sub-lexical (words are recognized through grapheme-phoneme correspondence) procedure. Castles and Coltheart (1993) provided evidence for the existence of these two mechanisms in English reading. They suggested that deficits in one and/or the other mechanism would lead to different patterns of reading disability. Surface dyslexia results from an impairment of the lexical procedure with an intact phonological route to reading. Phonological dyslexia results from a deficit in the grapheme-phoneme transformation mechanism. A higher percentage of surface dyslexia was identified in the present study. The aim of the second study was to analyze reading errors to support the existence of surface and phonological dyslexic patterns in Chinese reading. The results showed that students with surface dyslexic pattern made more phonological errors, whereas students with phonological dyslexic pattern made more semantic errors. These two studies indicate that students with learning disabilities could have different strengths and weaknesses and could have different preferences for recognizing Chinese characters and different responses to instructional methods. The third study was designed to test the effects of different teaching methods and different kinds of Chinese characters on students with learning disabilities. In general, the analytic method was found more effective for students with surface dyslexic pattern and the whole-word method for those with the phonological dyslexic pattern. The findings of this study showed the importance of identifying the strengths of the different sub-types of readers and the need to choose appropriate instructional methods accordingly.     

The impact of virtual reality on parents’ awareness of cognitive perceptions of a dyslectic child

Parents of dyslexic children encounter many difficulties in understanding and accepting their children’s disability. This affects the child’s self-image and the way s/he copes (Hallahan and Kauffman 1991; Einat 2003). The goal of this study was to develop VR immersive simulated states. The simulation was designed to help the parents of dyslexic children experience the kind of errors their children make when reading. Two groups of parents of dyslexic children participated in this experiment, an experimental group (N = 37), which experienced ten 3D worlds simulating different kinds of reading errors, and a control group (N = 30), that watched a movie describing and explaining similar errors. All the subjects were administered a cognitive questionnaire (Shavit 2005) before and after the intervention. In addition, the participants in the experimental group were interviewed before and after the intervention. The results indicate that experiencing a variety of simulated types of dyslexia with virtual reality can bring about improvement in parents’ awareness of the dyslexic child’s cognitive experiences, and that this improvement is significantly greater than that achieved by watching a film about dyslexia.     

Do Differences in Phonological Processing Performance Predict Gains Made by Older Low-progress Readers Following Intensive Literacy Intervention?

The research study examined the gains in single word recognition and oral reading fluency made by a group of low-progress readers following an intensive, systematic skills based reading programme (MULTILIT). Performance on the Phonological Assessment Battery (PhAB) was used to identify 'dyslexic' students (with poor phonological awareness) from 'garden-variety' low-progress readers. It was hypothesised that the identified group of 'dyslexic' students ( N = 16) would make smaller gains in reading outcomes compared to the group of 'garden-variety' low-progress readers ( N = 6). The results did not support the hypothesis since both groups of low-progress readers made substantial gains on both reading measures. Moreover, PhAB sub test scores did not predict size of gains. The results provide evidence for the usefulness of intensive literacy remediation to increase the reading gains of disabled readers despite their status (dyslexic or garden-variety) as a low-progress reader and lend support to those researchers who advocate a non-categorical approach to addressing reading disability. There is tentative evidence to suggest that the inclusion of a short phonological awareness training component for nine students may have impacted favourably on the reading outcomes of the 'dyslexic' group of low-progress readers.     

Implicit Knowledge of Word Stress and Derivational Morphology Guides Skilled Readers’ Decoding of Multisyllabic Words

In oral language, morphologically conditioned regularities around stress assignment can be found in two classes of derivational suffixes, one that causes lexical stress to shift to the syllable immediately preceding the suffix (ACtive – acTIVity) and one that has no effect on stress (SILLy – SILLiness). In this study, adults listening to spoken “derived” nonwords judged as preferable those wherein the stress placement was consistent with morphological regularities of English. When reading nonwords and a set of nonwords derived from them, readers reliably assigned stress to the syllable predicted by the morphology. This effect was significantly associated with scores on standardized measures of word reading after controlling for nonword reading ability, showing that the relationship was not merely an artifact of decoding skill. These findings support the importance of the interface between morphology and suprasegmental phonology as a key factor in the way English-speaking readers approach multisyllabic, morphologically complex words.     

A Behavioural Remediation Program for Oral Reading: effects on errors and comprehension

Abstract This study examined the efficacy of a behavioral remediation program for oral reading on oral reading errors and comprehension of four moderately mentally retarded children. The remediation program included previewing of the target text, delayed attention to oral reading errors, and positive practice overcorrection of errors plus positive reinforcement for self‐correction of errors. A multiple‐baseline across subjects design was used, with comprehension probes scheduled once every two or three days across both baseline and remediation phases. Comprehension probes consisted of 10 questions based on the target text and aimed to assess the child's literal comprehension, interpretation and critical reading. While the results demonstrated a clear relationship between remediation and oral reading errors, the relationship between remediation and comprehension was less clear. The remediation program was effective in reducing oral reading errors and, in the course of the study, increasing comprehension scores. These results were replicated across all four subjects.     

The Contribution of Analogical Problem Solving and Phonemic Awareness to Children's Ability to Make Orthographic Analogies when Reading

ABSTRACT A review of current literature into children's use of orthographic analogies during reading results in an apparent contradiction: that normal readers’ ability to draw such analogies is not predicted by their prior phonological awareness (Muteret al., 1994), rather by their reading experience and proficiency (Bowey and Underwood, 1996), but that dyslexic children are less able to draw these analogies because of theirlack of phonological awareness (Hanleyet al., 1997). It is suggested that in the absence of extensive reading experience, a combination of analogous problem‐solving ability and phonological awareness may be necessary for the successful use of orthographic analogies during reading. To assess this possibility, 70 children of limited reading experience and ability were assessed on phonemic awareness, their ability to make visual analogies and use orthographic analogies when reading. Phonemic awareness was able to account for 14% of the variance in reading ability. Phonemic awareness also accounted for 40% of the variance in children's orthographic analogy scores, and the ability to make visual analogies accounted for another 5%. It was also found that the ability to make orthographic analogies does not account for variance in reading ability scores once phonemic awareness has been taken into account.     

Heterogeneity in adult dyslexic readers: Relating processing skills to the speed and accuracy of oral text reading

Subgroups of Finnish dyslexic adults (N = 84)displaying, relative to each other, a distinctivecombination of accuracy and speed of oral text readingwere compared in phonological and orthographicprocessing, verbal short-term memory and readinghabits. Inaccurate phonological decoding appeared todetermine the number of errors made in text reading,while inability to utilize effectively rapid lexicalaccess of words manifested as slow text reading speed.Phonological and orthographic word recognitionprocesses were less tightly integrated among dyslexicthan normal readers. Our results indicate thatadvanced orthographic processing skills might help anumber of the dyslexic readers to compensate for theirserious phonological deficits. The subgroups alsodiffered from each other in reading habits. Arelatively fast reading speed, even with numerouserrors, appears to be more rewarding in everydayreading than a slower but more accurate readingstyle.     

Subgrouping of readers based on performance measures: a latent profile analysis

By using latent profile analysis eight stable and interpretable subgroups of readers were identified. The basis for subgrouping was different performance measures with four aspects of reading in focus: reading of continuous texts, reading of document texts, word reading and reading speed. Participants were 9-year-old Swedish students included in the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Reading Literacy Study in 1991 (n = 4,184) and in 2001 (n = 5,099). The eight subgroups were compared on different background variables, such as gender, language at home, and cultural and socioeconomic factors. It was concluded that latent profile analysis proved to be a feasible methodology. The even performance profiles of good and average readers imply that reading is a skill with a high degree of transfer and generality. Several subgroups of poor readers with more heterogeneous performance patterns could be identified. The three most stable subgroups proved to be comprised of high performers, poor comprehenders and dyslexic students.     

Is dyslexia a form of specific language impairment? a comparison of dyslexic and language impaired children as adolescents

Two groups of adolescents with a childhood history of language impairment were compared with a group of developmentally dyslexic young people of the same age and nonverbal ability. The study also included two comparison groups of typically developing children, one of the same age as those in the clinical groups, and a younger comparison group of similar reading level to the dyslexic students. Tests of spoken and written language skills revealed that the adolescents with dyslexia were indistinguishable from those with resolved language impairments on spoken language tasks, and both groups performed at age-expected levels. However, both dyslexic readers and those with resolved specific language impairments showed deficits in phonological awareness. On written language tasks, a different pattern of performance was apparent. In reading and spelling, adolescents with dyslexia performed only as well as those with persistent oral language impairments and younger controls. However, their reading comprehension was better. The theoretical and educational implications of these findings are discussed.     

Do Italian dyslexic children use the lexical reading route efficiently? An orthographic judgment task

The study uses an orthographic judgment task to evaluate the efficiency of the lexical reading route in Italian dyslexic children. It has been suggested that Italian dyslexic children rely prevalently on the sub-word-level routine for reading. However, it is not easy to test the lexical reading route in Italian directly because of the lack of critical items (irregular words), so visual lexical decision tasks and the comprehension/detection of pseudo-homophones are often used. While the former may also be solved on the basis of visual familiarity or phonological re-codification, the latter also involves conceptual and syntactic skills. Eleven dyslexic children participated in the study, performing an orthographic judgment task on stimuli with two phonologically plausible spellings, of which only one was orthographically correct. Their performance was compared with those of 11 proficient readers. The dyslexic children showed selective impairment in detecting phonologically plausible errors, but their performance was normal when required to judge errors inserted in words with regular orthography, i.e., devoid of orthographic ambiguity, and for which a sub-word-level reading procedure is sufficient to guarantee a good performance. Overall, data are coherent with a diagnosis of surface dyslexia, with most children showing defective orthographic lexical processing.

Dyslexia and sequential order errors in reading

This paper reports a study of the antecedent-consequent model of reading dysfunction and possible relationships between verbal spatial order memory and sequence errors in word reading. It provides data on the nature and frequency of such errors. Performance by normal and dyslexic readers on a number of tasks was compared. The study supports the hypothesis that sequence errors of dyslexic readers are related to a developmental lag. This research was carried out in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ed.D. at the University of Rochester. The author would like to express appreciation to Drs. Keith Rayner, Harry Reis, Ellsworth Woestehoff, Frank Greene and Achilles de Berardinis for their advice and assistance in the study.     

The Effects of an Introductory Provision of Context on the Oral Reading Behaviour of an Above Average Reader

Abstract Previous studies have shown that prior discussion, or the provision of context, both decrease oral reading errors and increase self‐correction amongst low‐progress and mentally retarded readers. This study investigated the effects of prior provision of context upon the reading behaviour of an above average reader. The results indicate that discussion of context (through examination of the relevant illustrations, asking and answering questions, and the verbal introduction of some new words in the text) both significantly decreased errors, and slightly increased the amount of self‐correction for this subject.     

Lexical and sub-lexical effects on accuracy, reaction time and response duration: impaired and typical word and pseudoword reading in a transparent orthography

In an opaque orthography like English, phonological coding errors are a prominent feature of dyslexia. In a transparent orthography like Spanish, reading difficulties are characterized by slower reading speed rather than reduced accuracy. In previous research, the reading speed deficit was revealed by asking children to read lists of words. However, speed in list reading sums the time required to prepare an utterance, reaction time (RT), with the time required to say it, response duration (RD). Thus, the dyslexic speed deficit in transparent orthographies could be driven by slow RTs, by slow RDs, or both. The distinction is especially important if developmental readers rely on phonological coding to achieve lexical access because the whole word would have to be encoded before it could be identified. However, while the factors that affect reading RT have been extensively investigated, no attention has been paid to RD. We studied the performance of typically developing and dyslexic Spanish children in an oral reading task. We analysed the impact of word frequency and length on reading accuracy, RT, and RD. We found that accuracy, RT, and RD were affected by word frequency and length for both control and dyslexic readers. We also observed interactions between effects of reader group—dyslexic, typically developing (TD) younger or TD older readers—and effects of lexicality, frequency, and word length. Our results show that children are capable of reading aloud using lexical and sub-lexical coding processes in a transparent orthography.     

The effect of inter-letter spacing on reading performance and eye movements in typically reading and dyslexic children

Recent studies have suggested that an increase of inter-letter spacing may improve reading performance of dyslexic readers by reducing visual crowding. However, these results have been difficult to replicate.This study directly compares reading accuracy and comprehension, as well as reading speed, and number and duration of fixations of 38 dyslexic and 32 typically reading children (10–14 years old) in regular, spaced (+2,5 pt), and condensed (−1,5 pt) conditions using a natural sentence-reading paradigm.Inter-letter spacing did not affect reading accuracy, comprehension, or speed. The lack of effects of inter-letter spacing was observed in both dyslexic and typical readers. Inter-letter spacing did not impact the number of fixations, but increased inter-letter spacing led to shorter fixations in dyslexic children. Decreased inter-letter spacing resulted in longer fixations in both groups.These results do not support the claim that dyslexics are more influenced by crowding than age-matched controls.     

Do dyslexic and other poor readers differ in reading-related cognitive skills?

The rationale for the study was that if dyslexic and garden-variety poor readers differ in reading-related cognitive skills, there is justification for believing dyslexia to be a distinct entity. Subjects were 110 children aged 6 to 10 years, divided into groups of dyslexic poor readers varying in verbal IQ, garden-variety poor readers, and good readers. Findings suggest that there are valid grounds for believing that dyslexia is a separate entity from garden-variety poor reading, and that it is found among children at all verbal IQ levels. Poor phonological awareness and nonword reading, in relation to normal readers, were shared by dyslexic and garden-variety poor readers. Deficits unique to dyslexic poor readers were problems in both automatic visual recognition and phonological recoding of graphic stimuli. The study supports the phonological-core variable-difference model of Stanovich (1988) in that both dyslexic and garden-variety poor readers showed phonological processing deficits, but they were more extensive in dyslexics.     

Representing written vowels in university students with dyslexia compared with normal hebrew readers

The study investigates dyslexic and normal Hebrew readers’ perception of words containing a vowel letter in different orthographic and morphological contexts. In the first experiment, 72 undergraduate education students (half diagnosed with reading disabilities and half normal readers) were asked to judge pointed words with different morphological structures with and without the grapheme W. Half of the words had consistent (obligatory) W and half had inconsistent (optional) W. In the second experiment, the same procedure was repeated using the same words without pointing marks. Response latencies and accuracy were measured. In both experiments, dyslexic readers did less well than normal readers. They had lower scores on accurate lexical decisions and they took more time over these decisions. They also exhibited some deviant patterns, indicating that they cannot make use of orthographic and morphological cues that are available to normal readers, especially in the pointed experiment. Processing pointed words placed a heavier cognitive burden on the dyslexic readers. These findings are in line with other studies of adult dyslexic reader/writers, and support a reading / spelling processing model, which claims that internal orthographic representations of words are increasingly strengthened with each exposure during reading, but not all graphemes are strengthened equally. The general implication is that the ambiguities that exist in the relationships between orthography, phonology, and morphology underlie spelling knowledge, and are particularly difficult for dyslexic readers.     

A study of the relationship between the Stroop effect and reading age in dyslexic subjects

40 dyslexic subjects were given a version of the Stroop test and the magnitude of interference was plotted as a function of reading age as measured by the British Ability Scale. A negative linear relationship emerged, such that greater reading proficiency was associated with less interference. This result is discussed in the context of LaBerge and Samuel's theory of automatic information processing in reading.     

Training in phonological strategies improves Chinese dyslexic children’s character reading skills

This study investigated Chinese dyslexic children’s efficiency in employing phonological strategies (i.e. the use of orthography-phonology correspondence rules) in reading and the effectiveness of training phonological strategies in improving Chinese dyslexic children’s reading performance. An Experimental Group of 15 Chinese dyslexic children received a five-day intensive training in phonological strategies while a comparable Control Group did not. The results showed that Chinese dyslexic children did not use the phonological strategies as efficiently as Chinese average readers, and the training programme was effective in significantly improving the Experimental Group’s reading performance. This suggests that Chinese dyslexic children can benefit from training in phonological strategies.