The word shape hypothesis re‐examined: evidence for an external feature advantage in visual word recognition

This study investigates the relative roles of internal and external letter features in word recognition. In Experiment 1 the efficacy of outer word fragments (words with all their horizontal internal features removed) was compared with inner word fragments (words with their outer features removed) as primes in a forward masking paradigm. These forward masked primes were followed by a word to be read aloud. Outer word primes presented for longer durations produced significantly faster naming responses than inner primes. Outer parts of words appear to provide more relevant information for lexical access at an earlier stage than inner fragments. In Experiment 2 words with only external features were named correctly on 96% of occasions compared with 52% of words with only their inner features presented. This indicates much greater information content in the periphery of a word (despite having a reduced area of print available: 45% compared to 55%). Multiple regression analyses controlling for ‘guessability’ (from data in Experiment 2) still produced significantly faster reaction times in the outer relative to the inner priming condition for longer prime durations. These experiments demonstrate that first, the most informative letter features are concentrated in the peripheral region of words; and second, even controlling for this effect, readers appear to have a bias towards analysing outer features of a word before inner features.     

Linguistic constraints on the cross-linguistic variations in L2 word recognition

Reading and Writing - This study investigated how experience with a first language (L1) writing system affects the development of the second language (L2) word recognition subskills and how L2...     

Investigating the mechanisms of written word production: insights from the written blocked cyclic naming paradigm

Reading and Writing - In three experiments, we examined whether similar principles apply to written and spoken production. Using a blocked cyclic written picture naming paradigm, we replicated the...     

Whole‐word shape effect in dyslexia

The research question here was whether whole‐word shape cues might facilitate reading in dyslexia following reports of how normal‐reading children benefit from using this cue when learning to read. We predicted that adults with dyslexia would tend to rely more on orthographic rather than other cues when reading, and therefore would be more affected by word shape manipulations. This prediction was tested in a lexical decision task on words with a flat or a non‐flat outline (i.e. without or with letters with ascending/descending features). We found that readers with dyslexia were significantly faster when reading non‐flat compared with flat words, while typical readers did not benefit from whole‐word shape cues. The interaction of participants' group and word shape was not modulated by word frequency; that is word outline shape facilitated reading for both rare and frequent words. Our results suggest that enhanced sensitivity to orthographic cues is developed in some cases of dyslexia when normal, phonology‐based word recognition processing is not exploited.     

The diagnostic assessment of word recognition and phonic skills in five‐year‐olds

Parallel versions of a new multiple‐choice word‐recognition test were administered to 1019 and 590 Year‐1 pupils respectively. The test format was based on a published test of Word Recognition and Phonic Skills and was intended to provide reliable diagnostic information. It was found that internally consistent measures of three types of word recognition error could be derived (relating to consonants, vowels and phoneme omission), but that scales for letter order errors were unreliable. Information about the length of words which an individual can usually recognise, the proportion of high frequency to low frequency words recognised and the relative ease of recognising regular and irregular words were also considered as having possible implications for teaching. Of these measures, only word length was found to be a strong independent predictor of word recognition. Implications of these findings for the future development of norm‐referenced tests that at the same time provide objective feedback about individual strengths and weaknesses are discussed.     

The time course of the syllable frequency effect in visual word recognition: evidence for both facilitatory and inhibitory effects in French

The present study tracked the time course of the syllable frequency effect in French visual word recognition, by varying the strength of spreading activation between letters and phonological syllables. The frequency of phonological first syllables and the frequency of orthographic first syllables were conjointly manipulated in two lexical decision tasks. In Experiment 1, word parsing into syllable units was supported by orthographic redundancy. No interaction between orthographic and phonological syllable frequency was found. In Experiment 2, word parsing into syllables was not marked by orthographic redundancy. Results showed an interaction between orthographic and phonological syllable frequency: the syllable frequency effect was inhibitory when orthographic syllable frequency was high, whereas it was facilitatory when orthographic syllable frequency was low. Decreasing the strength of syllable activation (i.e., with orthographic syllables of low frequency and ambiguous syllable boundaries) prevented the activation of lexical competitors before target word recognition, leading to a facilitatory effect of syllable frequency. The present study provides evidence that the net effect of syllable frequency is strongly related to its time course, and that the strength of syllable activation, which depends on orthographic properties, determines the direction of the net effect.     

Dissociations between serial position and number of letters effects in lateralised visual word recognition

Some previous studies of visual word recognition have reported an interaction between visual field and word length (measured by number of letters), such that recognition is affected more by word length for words presented in the left than for words presented in the right visual field. However, when manipulating serial position of letters in words to measure length effects, there are also reports of symmetrical word length effects in the two visual fields. Here we report two experiments, presenting four‐ and seven‐letter words, suggesting that the serial position and length effects in the hemispheres are separable and task dependent. For tasks that rely more heavily on letter‐level processing such as letter search (Experiment 1), performance in both hemifields showed similar effects of serial position; however, when comparing four‐ and seven‐letter words, an effect of word length was evident only in the left visual field, in line with the well‐established interaction between word length and hemifield. An interaction between word length and hemifield was confirmed for the same stimuli when they were employed in a lexical decision task, which forced whole‐word processing (Experiment 2). We conclude that the effects of serial position and number of letters in the two visual fields are separable, and are selectively affected by task type.     

Roots and patterns in Hebrew language development: evidence from written morphological analogies

Morphology is one of the organizing principles of the mental lexicon. It is especially important in Hebrew, where word structure expresses a rich array of semantic notions. This study investigated the ability of Hebrew-speaking children to solve written morphological analogies by reading and completing two sets of real and invented root- and pattern-related nouns using a closed set of responses. In the first experiment, 152 gradeschoolers (2nd–6th grade) were administered an analogy task with real words, where they had to read written stimuli and elicit root and pattern components from them. In the second experiment, 148 gradeschoolers were administered a similar reading task with pseudowords. In both experiments, the results clearly indicate an early and robust ability of Hebrew-speaking children to perform morphological analogies using both roots and patterns. Most errors involved the root morpheme rather than the pattern morpheme, but pseudowords elicited more pattern errors. These results are discussed in view of models of morphological processing and morpho-lexical development in Hebrew.     

Accuracy feedback improves word learning from context: evidence from a meaning-generation task

The present study asked whether accuracy feedback on a meaning generation task would lead to improved contextual word learning (CWL). Active generation can facilitate learning by increasing task engagement and memory retrieval, which strengthens new word representations. However, forced generation results in increased errors, which can be detrimental for learning if they are not corrected. The goal of this study was to determine whether immediate feedback on response accuracy would ameliorate this risk. The study was conducted using an intelligent tutoring system, which presents target words in multiple contexts and prompts users to generate a target word meaning after each context. One group of participants (feedback group) received immediate feedback based on Markov Estimation of Semantic Association (MESA), which estimates the distance between the learner response and the target word meaning. The control group did not receive feedback. Results from conventional (pre/post-test) measures showed greater gains in accuracy and confidence for the feedback group. Moreover, when contextual support was decreased mid-way through the training (from trial 3 to trial 4), MESA measures showed a corresponding drop in accuracy, but only for the No-Feedback group. These findings suggest that accuracy feedback can improve outcomes in CWL, particularly when there is an increased risk of errors. This strengthens the case for meaning generation as a tool to build high-quality lexical representations.     

Preschoolers explore interactive storybook apps: The effect on word recognition and story comprehension

Two experiments explored the effects of reading digital storybooks on tablet computers with 25 preschoolers, aged 4–5. In the first experiment, the students’ word recognition scores were found to increase significantly more when students explored a digital storybook and employed the read-aloud function than when they were read to from a comparable print book. Their comprehension scores did not change significantly in the two conditions. In Experiment 2, the same students explored digital storybooks with more animation embedded in them. The students listened to the read aloud function on the tablet computer and explored digital storybooks in both conditions, but in one condition a teacher guided the talk about the story. Contrary to expectations, the students’ word recognition and story comprehension scores were higher in the independent condition than in the guided condition. One explanation for the higher word recognition scores when students were reading with the tablet computer is the effect of multimedia, like hotspots and/or text tracking. Although digital storybooks are not a substitute for adult interaction, these preschoolers learned surprisingly well on their own. The importance of digital storybook design, as well as what elements to look for in an e-book to encourage literacy learning are discussed.     

Morphological structures in visual word recognition: the case of Arabic

This research examined the function within lexical access of the main morphemic units from which most Arabic words are assembled, namely roots and word patterns. The present study focused on the derivation of nouns, in particular, whether the lexical representation of Arabic words reflects their morphological structure and whether recognition of a word involves recognition of its morphological constituents. The morphology of Arabic language constitutes two main systems: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology is used to express grammatical relations and derivational morphology deals with the formation of new words in language; it contains two types of word patterns: verbal and nominal. In this study, it was assumed that roots are lexical entities that can facilitate lexical access to a large cluster of words that derive from them, whereas word patterns are not lexical entities and have no role in access to words assembled by them. The lexical representations of the main morphemic units were examined in four experiments using skilled readers applying masked priming technique tasks: lexical decision and naming. The results indicated that previous exposure to a word sharing the same word pattern had no marked facilitating effect on lexical decision or on naming. The main conclusion of this study on the morphology of Arabic is that roots and word patterns have no essential role in word organisation in the mental lexicon. In addition, words in nominal pattern in derivational morphology are represented in their whole shape in the mental lexicon and each word has an independent representation.     

Item analysis of written expression scoring systems from the PIAT‐R and WIAT

The Peabody Individual Achievement Test–Revised (PIAT‐R) and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) contain measures of written expression. However, these subtests are not theory‐based and were assessed with inappropriate psychometric analyses. This study attempted to enhance the study of written expression by reexamining the reliability and validity of the PIAT‐R and WIAT Written Expression scoring systems, applying theory and more appropriate statistical analyses. First, items were identified that were the most and least reliable, determined by interrater agreement. Next, the most and least valid items were identified, based on item–total correlations. Subjects included 50 adolescents, men, and women aged 13 to 46 years; raters were three graduate students with experience and training similar to that of the typical test user. Results indicate that seven items were too easy, as virtually all subjects received the maximum score on these items—these items were eliminated. The remaining 24 items were classified as both reliable and valid (9 items), reliable but not valid (4 items), valid with limited reliability (5 items), and neither reliable nor valid (6 items). The WIAT written expression scoring system was found to have more items that were both reliable and valid compared to the PIAT‐R scoring system. Items measuring global, rather than specific, content were also found to be more reliable and valid. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Strategy effects on word searching in Japanese letter fluency tests: evidence from the NIRS findings

Strategy effects on word searching in the Japanese letter fluency test were investigated using the Near-infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS). Participants were given a Japanese letter fluency test and they were classified into two types of strategy users, based on analysis of their recorded verbal responses. One group, AIUEO-order strategy users, employed sequential word searching based upon the imagery of the AIUEO-table which they mastered when young, and the other group, semantic strategy users, searched for the next word mainly based on semantic relations. The blood-flow volumes (OxyHb) measured of the AIUEO-order strategy users were greater than for the semantic strategy users in the frontal parts of the brain, and the blood-flow was more active in the right than in the left part of the brain. These different activation patterns suggest that the NIRS might be useful new brain imaging technique for examination of psychological process in verbal behavior.     

朗读条件下词切分方式对说明文阅读影响的眼动研究

在以采用默读方式研究词切分对阅读绩效影响研究的基础上,就朗读务件下词切分对说明文阅读绩效的影响进行了研究.实验一采用单因素4水平(呈现方式:无空格,词间空格,非词空格,字间空格)重复测量实验设计;实验二采用灰色突出显示词边界,确保四种呈现方式下材料的长度相同进行进一步探讨.结果发现:(1)在汉语语篇中插入词间空格会促进朗读;(2)在汉语语篇中插入非词间空格和字间空格会阻碍朗读.     

Explaining Individual Differences in Reading: on the orthographic component of word recognition

This article first presents a conception of word recognition involving both phonological and orthographic processes. Three different explanations about the origin of orthographic processes in word recognition are then discussed. These explanations are: (1) differences in orthographic memory, (2) differences in phonological processes and (3) differences in leisure time reading. In accord with the third explanation, it is argued that automatic orthographic word recognition is directly dependent on children's amount of reading practice in an out‐of‐school setting. Educational implications of this emphasis on leisure time reading effects are also discussed.     

The role of vowel signs in Hebrew: Beyond word recognition

After third grade of elementary school, native Hebrew speakers in Israel gradually become expert in reading two kinds of writing systems: the one they start with that contains signs for every phoneme of the spoken language, and another, to which they are steadily introduced, beginning with the second grade, which omits most vowels, together with few consonantal distinctions. Earlier studies indicate that single voweled words are read faster than unvoweled words, particularly in a naming task. This study examined another possible contribution of vowel signs in reading Hebrew: Its effect on memory and comprehension. It was assumed that if subvocalization facilitates memory of words while reading, and if vowel signs facilitate phonological processing, as is perhaps the case in naming tasks, then vowelization may intensify the processing of the articulatory loop and this should improve memory and comprehension. Our first two experiments assessed the contribution of vowel signs to the memory of word lists in either recognition memory or word recall tasks. The third experiment examined the contribution of vowel signs to the reading of connected texts. We found that vowel signs speeded up recognition memory of words in third graders, and improved the recall of words printed in the context of mixed lists in sixth graders. We also found that vowelization improved memory and comprehension of some prose texts.     

How does dissociation between written and oral forms affect reading: evidence from auxiliary verbs in Arabic

In Arabic, auxiliary verbs are necessary in the written language, but absent from the oral language. This is contrary to languages such as English and French in which auxiliary verbs are mandatory in both written and oral languages. This fact was exploited to examine if dissociation between written and oral forms affects reading measures like letter detection task and therefore to validate the phenomenon of the missing‐letter effect (MLE) and to replicate previous studies. In addition, the study examined whether auxiliary verbs in Arabic are considered as functional elements that constitute part of the structural frame. Sixty native Arabic speakers read a passage while looking for a target letter that was embedded in a preposition, an auxiliary verb or a content word. Results showed the typical MLE with more omissions for the preposition than for the content words. However, the results with the auxiliary verb are less clear. The functional and the syntactic roles of auxiliary verbs in Arabic are discussed.     

Emotion recognition development: Preliminary evidence for an effect of school pedagogical practices

While emotion recognition is shaped through social interactions from a child's early years through at least late adolescence, no emphasis has thus far been given to the effects of daily experiences at school. We posited that enriched, more diverse, and less competitive social interactions fostered by some pedagogical practices may contribute to emotion recognition processes in children. Here, we investigated differences in emotion recognition among schoolchildren experiencing the Montessori versus traditional practices. Children performed two tasks; one measuring the impact of social context on fear-surprise perception, and one measuring their bias toward happiness or anger. Results suggest that children experiencing traditional practices show a higher sensitivity to fear-recognition, while children attending Montessori schools show a higher integration of social cues and perceive expressions of happiness for longer durations. Such preliminary findings call for replication and further research to determine which pedagogical features from the Montessori method may explain these effects.