Effects of a Three-Year Exercise Program on Motor Function and Cognitive Processing Speed in Older Women

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of a three-year exercise program on motor performance and cognitive processing speed of previously sedentary older women, ages 57–85. Variables tested were simple and choice reaction time (CRT), balance, sit and reach flexibility, shoulder flexibility, and grip strength. Subjects participated three times a week in exercise performance classes designed to meet American College of Sports Medicine guidelines. Results indicate that performance was significantly improved on all measures during the course of the study (p < .01) except for the sit and reach test (SRT), where significance was approached (p < .027), but not reached. A comparison of the exercise subjects with a comparable group of nonexercising control subjects revealed significant interactions between treatment and time on all variables except CRT and grip strength. Pretest to posttest scores of the exercise subjects tended to improve over the three-year period, whereas the scores of the control subjects declined. Improved reaction time indicated exercise is effective in reversing or at least slowing certain age-related declines in motor performance and in speed of cognitive processing.     

A Comparison of the Motor Performance of Black and Caucasian Girls Age 6–8

Abstract

An investigation was undertaken to determine possible age and race difference between Black and Caucasian girls ages 6, 7, and 8 years. Ninety female subjects were administered 28 test items measuring speed, muscular power, agility, flexibility, balance, muscular endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance. Few significant differences were observed between adjacent ages but 8-year-old females were significantly superior to the 6-year-old subjects on most motor performance variables utilized. For race comparisons, no significant differences were noted for measures of flexibility, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, speed, balance, or muscular power. The Black subjects were significantly superior on two measures of agility while the Caucasian subjects performed significantly better on the time-limit shuttle run and grip strength.     

太极柔力球运动对老年女性血清雌激素、肌肉力量及认知功能的影响

目的:通过分析太极柔力球练习对老年女性血清雌激素、肌肉力量、手臂稳定性、光辨别反应时、长时及瞬时记忆保持量的影响,探讨太极柔力球运动提高老年女性肌肉力量及认知功能的可行性.方法:选取老年女性29人,分为对照组(14人)和锻炼组(15人),对两组血清雌二醇、左右手握力、红绿光辨别反应时、手臂稳定性及长时、瞬时记忆保持量等各项指标进行比较分析.结果:与对照组比较,老年女性太极柔力球锻炼组的血清雌二醇(76.85±15.36 pmol/L;P＜0.01)、右手握力(278.36±52.36 N;P＜0.01)、红绿光辨别反应时(0.42±0.15 s;0.60±0.21 s;P＜0.01,P＜0.05)、右手臂稳定性(3.65±0.52 mm;P＜0.01)、长时记忆保持量(0.55±0.09;P＜0.05)及瞬时记忆保持量(0.62±0.15;P＜0.05)差异均有显著性;左手握力(225.69±18.67 N)及左手臂稳定性(5.3±0.99 mm)较对照组增高,但无显著性差异(P＞0.05).结论:大极柔力球练习可增高老年女性的血清雌二醇水平,对提高老年女性的肌肉力量及认知功能具有积极作用,值得大力推广.     

羽毛球运动对体育院校学生体质健康的影响研究

目的：探讨羽毛球运动训练对体育院校学生体质健康的影响。方法：使用辽宁丹东体育有限公司身高、体重、肺活量、握力、立定跳远、台阶脉搏测试仪对哈尔滨体育学院2009级羽毛球专修学生训练前后及无专修学生进行测试,比较两组间变化。结果：（1）羽毛球运动可降低体质指数;（2）羽毛球运动提高台阶指数;（3）羽毛球运动提高大学生握力体重指数;（4）羽毛球运动提高肺活量及立定跳远成绩;（5）力量素质、肺通气机能、耐力素质随年龄增长呈增长趋势,下肢爆发力则呈下降趋势。结论：羽毛球运动可改善大学生的体质健康状况。     

A Test of Activation as a General Factor in Strength Performance

Abstract

A test was made of the general activation concept as it relates to strength performance. No difference in grip strength was found between an experimental group (N = 35), who performed maximal leg strength exercises between grip trials (in an attempt to raise their level of activation through induced muscular tension), and a control group (N = 35) who read between grip trials. Also, there was no difference in grip strength performance over trials for both groups. Intercorrelations of strength scores between limbs for the experimental group showed more specificity than generality. While these results fail to support a generalized activation effect in the static strength performance context, they do provide additional evidence of neuromuscular specificity in motor ability.     

Reliability and Responsiveness of Gait Speed,Five Times Sit to Stand,and Hand Grip Strength for Patients in Cardiac Rehabilitation

Purpose

Following a cardiac event patients are at risk for deficits in mobility and function. However, measures of physical performance are not commonly used and have not been extensively studied in patients enrolled in cardiac rehabilitation. The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability and the minimal detectable change (MDC) of gait speed, 5 times sit to stand (5 STS) and hand grip strength for individuals enrolled in cardiac rehabilitation.

Methods

Forty-nine individuals enrolled in phase II or III cardiac rehabilitation participated in the study. Gait speed, 5 STS, and hand grip strength were measured over two sessions held on the same day. Intraclass correlation coefficient was used to determine reliability and MDC₉₅ was calculated to measure responsiveness.

Results

All 3 measures showed high reliability (ICC for gait speed = 0.96, 5 STS = 0.87, right hand grip strength = 0.97, left hand grip strength = 0.97). The MDC₉₅ for gait speed was 0.16 meters/second, 3.12 seconds for 5 STS, 5.2 kilograms for right and 5.1 kilograms for left hand grip strength.

Conclusion

Gait speed, 5 STS, and hand grip strength are reliable and responsive measures for patients in cardiac rehabilitation. Findings support their use in clinical practice and future cardiac rehabilitation studies.Key Words: cardiac rehabilitation, gait speed, sit to stand     

Fördert ein multidimensionales Gesundheitssportprogramm kognitive und motorische Fähigkeiten im höheren Erwachsenenalter?

Research on successful aging has shown that physical training can have positive effects on cognitive and motor functions in the elderly. The article describes a study involving a 12-week multidimensional exercise program (endurance, strength, flexibility and relaxation) with one session per week which was established for older adults (60 years onwards). Cognitive training (e. g. attention, concentration and memory) was additionally targeted in each exercise session. The exercise program was evaluated by different standardized tests regarding its effects on motor and cognitive performance as dependent variables. In a randomized controlled trial with experimental and waiting control group two points of measurement were conducted. The results showed a significant increase in fitness parameters (endurance, strength and dynamic balance) for the experimental group in contrast to the control group. The expected significant increase for cognitive functions was not found. There is still not enough known about the relationship between cognitive function and physical activity in older adults.     

太极拳锻炼对老年人身体素质作用的研究

为探讨太极拳锻炼对老年人身体素质的作用,运用实验对比、问卷调查等方法,对随机选取的太极拳锻炼组和对照组各18名老年人的闭眼单脚站立、坐位体前屈、反应时、握力等项目进行实验测试。结果显示,太极拳锻炼组闭眼单脚站立时间为10．98±5．07s、坐位体前屈为14．89±3．60cm、反应时为0．56±0．07s、握力为36．22±4．79kg,各项指标均明显优于对照组（P〈0．01）。研究表明,太极拳锻炼对于改善老年人的平衡、柔韧、灵敏、力量等身体素质方面具有积极作用。     

Taekwondo training and fitness in female adolescents

In this study, we determined the specificity of a low frequency taekwondo training programme on physical fitness levels in adolescent females who receive limited physical education instruction (i.e. 2 days per week). Major components of physical fitness assessed were: skeletal muscle fitness (hand grip strength, bent arm hang, standing long jump, and isokinetic strength), flexibility (sit-and-reach test), speed and agility (10 × 5-m shuttle run), and cardiovascular fitness (VO(2max) and 20-m shuttle run). Changes in body composition were also assessed (dual X-ray absorptiometry, DXA). Participants were divided into two groups, a taekwondo training group (n = 21), which trained 50 min a day, 2 days per week for 12 weeks, and a control group (n = 10). Taekwondo training improved isokinetic strength, standing long jump, and sit-and-reach performance. Body fat mass and percent body fat were reduced. No changes in grip strength, bent arm hang time, speed and agility, or cardiorespiratory fitness were observed. Results indicate that low frequency taekwondo training in adolescent females produces beneficial changes in skeletal muscle fitness, flexibility, and body composition in a relatively short period of time. Consequently, this specific type of training can be useful to female adolescents in structured school environments where physical education classes are limited and there is little free time for physical activity.     

Deleterious effects of obesity on physical fitness in pre-pubertal children

The prevalence of obesity in children has increased dramatically during the past decades in Europe and understanding physical fitness and its components in children is critical to design and implement effective interventions. The objective of the present study was to analyse the association between physical fitness (aerobic, speed, agility, power, flexibility and balance) and body mass index (BMI) in pre-pubertal children. A total of 2411 healthy schoolchildren (7–11 years) participated in this study. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition were assessed by skinfold thickness. Physical fitness was measured by nine physical fitness tests: endurance running, 20 m running speed, agility, handgrip strength, standing long jump and squat jump, sit and reach, medicine ball forward throw and static balance. No relevant differences were observed between boys and girls regarding anthropometric characteristics, body composition and physical fitness. However, overweight and obese children showed significantly lower physical fitness levels in endurance running, speed and agility (mean: +18.8, +5.5 and +14.5% of time to complete tasks, respectively), lower limb power normalised to body mass (?23.3%) and balance tests (number of falls: +165.5%) than their normal weight counterparts. On the other hand, obesity did not affect handgrip, throwing and flexibility. In conclusion, increased BMI was associated with lower performance capabilities limiting proper motor skill development, which directly affects the ability of children to take on sports skills. Actions undertaken to promote children's wellness and fitness should be prioritised and introduced early in life with the aim of enhancing physical fitness as well as preventing overweight and obesity.     

武术运动员的身心素质对比赛成绩影响的研究

随机抽取第六届全国大学生武术锦标赛的运动员共51人作为研究对象,按性别分为3组,前4名为第1组,5~8名为第2组,未进入前8名的为对照组,分别测量他们的身体形态、身体成分、身体素质和赛前心理状态。结果:男运动员在身高、体重、脂肪比率,肌肉含量、去脂体重、WHR、BMI、肺活量、肺活量指数、握力、立定跳远、反应时和平衡性方面,第1组、第2组与对照组相比,均没有显著性意义(P>0.05),握力指数和坐位体前屈第1组显著性高于其他组(P<0.05);女运动员的肌肉含量、去脂体重和坐位体前屈第1组显著性高于对照组(P<0.05),第2组在身高、脂肪比率、去脂体重和握力方面显著性高于第1组和对照组(P<0.05~0.01),坐位体前屈和反应时显著性低于第1组(P<0.05~0.01)。第1组运动员在赛前认知状态焦虑和躯体状态焦虑显著性均低于第2组和对照组(P<0.05~0.01),而自信心第1组、第2组和对照组之间没有显著性差异(P>0.05)。结论:力量和柔韧性是影响男子武术运动员比赛成绩的重要因素;肌肉含量、去脂体重和坐位体前屈是影响女子武术运动员比赛成绩的重要因素;赛前认知状态焦虑和躯体状态焦虑也是影响武术比赛成绩的重要因素之一,而状态自信心对比赛成绩影响不大。     

Does acute exercise switch off switch costs? A study with younger and older athletes

This study investigated the effects of acute exercise on 53 young (16-24 years) and 47 older (65-74 years) adults' switch-task performance. Participants practiced sports requiring either low or high cognitive demands. Both at rest and during aerobic exercise, the participants performed two reaction time tasks that differed in the amount of executive control involved in switching between global and local target features of visual compound stimuli. Switch costs were computed as reaction time differences between switch and nonswitch trials. In the low demanding task, switch costs were sensitive only to age, whereas in the high demanding task, they were sensitive to acute exercise, age, and sport-related cognitive expertise. The results suggest that acute exercise enhances cognitive flexibility and facilitates complex switch-task performance. Both young age and habitual practice of cognitively challenging sports are associated with smaller switch costs, but neither age nor cognitive expertise seem to moderate the relationship between acute exercise and switch-task performance.     

On the generality of the "sit and reach" test: an analysis of flexibility data for an aging population

Head rotation, shoulder extension and rotation, ankle plantar and dorsiflexion, hip flexion, and sit and reach (SR) scores were examined in 41 women and 39 men, aged 45-75 years. The SR gave more reproducible data than the other measurements (intraclass test/retest correlation over 8 months, r = .83). SR scores were independent of standing height (r2 = .068) but were greater in women (p less than .002). The flexibility at all joints was less than reported for young adults. There were age-related decreases of flexibility scores for the head and shoulder joints (p less than .01), with a parallel trend (p less than .05) for ankle plantar flexion and SR scores (the last only after inclusion of an age-gender interaction term). A principal components analysis identified three factors (tentatively identified as general trunk, ankle, and shoulder flexibility) accounting for 55.9% of total variance. SR scores had a moderate correlation with the first factor (r = .61) but only weak correlations with the second and third. Although the SR test is the most reliable simple instrument, it provides only limited information about the flexibility at other joints in an older population.     

Determination of the Aerobic Benefit of Selected Physical Education Activities

We examined the relationship between competence in three fundamental motor skills (throwing, kicking, and jumping) and six measures of health-related physical fitness in young adults (ages 18–25). We assessed motor skill competence using product scores of maximum kicking and throwing speed and maximum jumping distance. A factor analysis indicated the 12-min run/walk, percent body fat, curl-ups, grip strength, and maximum leg press strength all loaded on one factor defining the construct of “overall fitness.” Multiple regression analyses indicated that the product scores for jumping (74%), kicking (58%), and throwing (59%) predicted 79% of the variance in overall fitness. Gender was not a significant predictor of fitness. Results suggest that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood. These data represent the strongest to date on the relationship between motor skill competence and physical fitness.     

Physical activity and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis

Cognitive impairment is prevalent, disabling, and poorly managed in persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). This cross-sectional study examined the associations among physical activity, cognitive processing speed, and learning and memory in 33 persons with MS who underwent neuropsychological assessments and wore a physical activity monitor for 7 days. Cognitive impairment was greatest in cognitive processing speed. Physical activity was significantly correlated with cognitive processing speed (pr = .35), but not learning and memory (pr = .20), after controlling for sex, age, and education. Researchers should examine exercise training and physical activity effects on cognitive performance, particularly processing speed, in MS.     

The British Olympic Association's Position Statement on Athlete Confidentiality

Abstract

In this study, we determined the specificity of a low frequency taekwondo training programme on physical fitness levels in adolescent females who receive limited physical education instruction (i.e. 2 days per week). Major components of physical fitness assessed were: skeletal muscle fitness (hand grip strength, bent arm hang, standing long jump, and isokinetic strength), flexibility (sit-and-reach test), speed and agility (10 × 5-m shuttle run), and cardiovascular fitness ([Vdot]O _2max and 20-m shuttle run). Changes in body composition were also assessed (dual X-ray absorptiometry, DXA). Participants were divided into two groups, a taekwondo training group (n = 21), which trained 50 min a day, 2 days per week for 12 weeks, and a control group (n = 10). Taekwondo training improved isokinetic strength, standing long jump, and sit-and-reach performance. Body fat mass and percent body fat were reduced. No changes in grip strength, bent arm hang time, speed and agility, or cardiorespiratory fitness were observed. Results indicate that low frequency taekwondo training in adolescent females produces beneficial changes in skeletal muscle fitness, flexibility, and body composition in a relatively short period of time. Consequently, this specific type of training can be useful to female adolescents in structured school environments where physical education classes are limited and there is little free time for physical activity.     

The Relationship of the Sit and Reach Test to Criterion Measures of Hamstring and Back Flexibility in Young Females

Abstract

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the relationships of the sit and reach test, a component of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Health Related Fitness Test, 1980, with criterion measures of back and hamstring flexibility. Young females (N = 100) with a mean age of 14.08 years ± .825 were administered two trials of three tests. The measurements included the sit and reach test, passive hamstring flexibility using a Leighton Flexometer, and a test of back flexibility using a protocol suggested by Macrae and Wright in 1969. Test-retest reliability estimates exceeded .90 for all measurements. Results indicated that the sit and reach test had a moderate relationship (r = .64) with passive hamstring flexibility. The correlations between the sit and reach test and total back flexibility (r = .07), upper back flexibility (r = ?.16), and lower back flexibility (r = .28) were low. These findings indicate the sit and reach test has moderate criterion-related validity when used as an assessment of hamstring flexibility, but appears not to provide a valid assessment of back and, in particular, low back flexibility which is one of the reasons it was included in the Health Related Fitness Test.     

Reliable and Feasible Fitness Testing for Children on the Autism Spectrum

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This study examined the test-retest reliability and feasibility of select fitness assessments in 7–12 year old children on the autism spectrum. Method: Participants (N = 14; n = 1 female; Mage = 9.5 ± 1.7 years) completed 7 fitness assessments, administered in a random order, on two occasions: Bruce protocol; Modified 6-minute walk test (M6MWT); Wingate anaerobic cycling test; muscle power sprint test (MPST); sit & reach; standing long jump; and grip strength. Intraclass correlations (two-way mixed with absolute agreement) were computed to examine test-retest reliability. Feasibility was assessed by questionnaire following the first administration of each test. Results: The Wingate (ICC = .956), standing long jump (ICC = .925), grip strength (ICC = .913), and sit and reach (ICC = .829) tests demonstrated good- to- excellent reliability, while the Bruce protocol (ICC = .811), M6MWT (ICC = .510), and MPST (ICC = .703) demonstrated moderate- to- good reliability based on the 95% confidence intervals of the ICC. All tests demonstrated assessor-rated feasibility scores of 70/100 or higher and child-rated feasibility scores of 66/100 or higher. Conclusion: The results demonstrate moderate- to excellent test-retest reliability for select fitness tests. Short, single-instruction (e.g., standing long jump) tests may be more reliable than lengthier assessments (e.g., M6MWT) in this population. Implications of this work include the ability of practitioners and researchers to feasibly and reliably measure the fitness of school-aged children on the autism spectrum for ongoing health and behavioural monitoring and intervention purposes.     

Effects of periodic carbohydrate ingestion on endurance and cognitive performances during a 40-km cycling time-trial under normobaric hypoxia in well-trained triathletes

The purpose of this study was to examine CHO ingestion on a cognitive task using a field-simulated time-trial (TT) under hypoxia in well-trained triathletes. Ten male triathletes (age: 22.1 ± 1.1 years; VO₂max: 59.4 ± 1.4 ml/kg/min) participated in this double-blind/crossover/counter-balanced design study. Participants completed 3 TT trials: 1) normoxic placebo (NPLA; FiO₂ = 20.9%), 2) hypoxic placebo (HPLA; FiO₂ = 16.3%), and 3) hypoxic CHO (HCHO; 6% CHO provided as 2 ml/kg/15 min; FiO₂ = 16.3%). During the TT, physiological responses (SpO₂, HR, RPE, and blood glucose/lactate), cognitive performance, and cerebral haemodynamics were measured. Hypoxia reduced TT performance by ~3.5–4% (p < 0.05), but CHO did not affect TT performance under hypoxia. For the cognitive task, CHO slightly preserved exercise-induced cognitive reaction speed but did not affect response accuracy during hypoxic exercise. However, CHO did not preserve the decreased Hb-Diff (cerebral blood flow, CBF) and increased HHb in the prefrontal lobe (p < 0.05) during hypoxic exercise, and CHO failed to preserve hypoxia-suppressed prefrontal CBF and tissue oxygen saturation. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that CHO is effective in sustaining reaction speed for a cognitive task but not promoting TT performance during hypoxic exercise, which would be important for strategy-/decision-making when athletes compete at moderate high-altitude.     

Differences in Sensorimotor Processing of Visual and Proprioceptive Stimuli

Abstract

The present study sought to determine whether individuals could be trained to attenuate the visual dominance effect by selecting a proprioceptive stimulus for attention. Using a reaction time (RT) task, subjects received either: (a) visual (V), (b) proprioceptive (P), or (c) combined V and P (VP) stimuli during the first four days. Each subject was then tested under all three stimuli conditions. Results showed that reaction time to the P cue was always faster than that to V or combined VP stimuli. The order in which subjects were tested under each stimulus modality significantly affected the results such that those subjects who received initial exposure to the V stimulus produced the slowest premotor time scores but the fastest motor time scores. These results suggest that the nature of the stimulus which initiates the volitional task can affect both the central processing requirements to initiate the response, and the qualitative manner in which the motor command is executed.