Body movements of boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) during computer video game play

The type and severity of body movements exhibited by 79 (unmedicated) boys clinically diagnosed with ADHD (30 Predominantly Inattentive Type and 49 Combined Type), and 67 non-ADHD boys were recorded while playing Crash Bandicoot I, a Sony Playstation platform computer video game. In Crash Bandicoot, participants control the movements of a small animated figure (CB) through a hazardous jungle environment. Two tasks totaling 12 trials were administered, each of which incorporated with and without Distractor conditions. For those trials with the Distractor, a segment of the television show "The Simpsons" was simultaneously played on a television screen adjacent to the computer game monitor and at an equal volume. Contrary to theory and expectations an analysis of the data did not reveal any statistically significant differences in the frequency, type and severity of body movements between the ADHD and non-ADHD boys, or between the ADHD subtypes during computer video game play. These findings have important implications for assessment and teaching processes in both classroom and therapeutic contexts.     

Long‐Term Episodic Memory in Children with Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Twenty‐nine grade‐matched 4th–8th‐grade males, 12 with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (age M= 12.2 years, SD= 1.48), and 17 without (age M= 11.5, SD= 1.59), completed two working memory tasks (digit span and the Simon game) and three long‐term episodic memory tasks (a personal event memory task, story memory task, and picture recognition task). In line with clinical observations, children with ADHD performed worse than peers on all working memory tasks, but performed as well as or better than peers on long‐term episodic tasks, demonstrating particularly detailed memory for personally experienced past events. Participants' parents also completed questionnaires about their children's memories in daily life. Parents rated children with ADHD lower than children without ADHD on working and semantic memory (e.g., remembering names, spelling, and math), but rated them as high or higher on memory for events. Implications for theory and educational practice are discussed.     

Visual Attention to and Comprehension of Television in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered and Normal Boys

This study examined the effects of distracters on the television viewing of diagnosed ADHD (n = 19) and normal (n = 20) boys who ranged in age from 6 to 12 years. Subjects were videotaped watching four 7-min segments of "3-2-1 Contact," once in the presence and once in the absence of highly appealing toys. The results indicated that, while in the presence of toys, ADHD boys spent one-half as much time as control boys attending to the television. However, when toys were absent, there were no significant differences in visual attention between ADHD and normal boys. The effect of the toy manipulation was most dramatic with younger children of both groups. Recall of didactic content by ADHD boys and normal subjects did not differ significantly, even when the attention of ADHD boys was reduced. These findings suggest that ADHD children, like their normal counterparts, are active and strategic viewers of television.     

Objectivity of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (adhd) and their mothers when responding to a caricatured portrayal of adhd

In a recent theoretical model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) it is proposed that a core deficit in response inhibition affects, among other things, an individual's objectivity in their reaction to events. In the context of this, the ability of boys diagnosed with ADHD objectively to differentiate their own behaviour from that of a caricatured portrayal of ADHD by Bart Simpson was examined. Four segments, each lasting 10–15 seconds, depicting ADHD related behaviours were isolated from a television episode of The Simpsons and shown in random order to 39 boys diagnosed with ADHD, their mothers, and two paediatricians. After watching each segment, the boys were asked to show how similar they believed their behaviours were to those exhibited by Bart Simpson by simultaneously placing two figures (one a replica of Bart and another representing themselves) on a chequer board. Mothers were subsequently administered the same procedure to indicate how they viewed their sons' behaviour in relation to Bart's. The distance measured between the two figures was representative of their levels of objectivity compared to a benchmark level set by the two paediatricians using the same chequer board procedure. While the results overall indicate that boys with ADHD and their mothers are able to make distinctions between caricatured and typical ADHD behaviours, the results are mediated by both ADHD subtype and the specific ADHD behaviour portrayed in the video segment.     

Deaf children and children with ADHD in the inclusive classroom: working memory matters

This study compared the working memory functioning of deaf children, children with ADHD and typically developing children. Working memory is involved in the storage and mental manipulation of information during classroom learning activities that are crucial for the acquisition of complex skills and knowledge. Thus, it is important to determine how these groups compare in this regard as this has implications for teaching them together in an inclusive classroom. Simple and complex visuo-spatial and verbal working memory were assessed in 24 children with ADHD and 20 control children with no diagnosed ADHD, to determine whether any differences existed between these groups. A second comparison occurred between the simple and complex visuo-spatial working memory of the latter two groups, as well as 24 deaf children, all matched on age, gender and home language. The control group scored significantly higher than the deaf children and the children with ADHD on all components of simple and complex working memory. The implications of this finding are that children with ADHD and deaf children may share similar working memory profiles, making it easier to accommodate both sets of children together in the inclusive classroom. Suggestions are given for how educators could assist these children by reducing the demands on working memory.     

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disordered and control boys' responses to social success and failure

The behavioral, self-evaluative, and attributional responses of 120 boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and 65 control boys to social success and failure were examined using a dyadic, laboratory get-acquainted task employing child confederates. Objective coders rated boys with ADHD as less socially effective than controls in their interactions, but also as less frustrated and helpless. In terms of self-evaluations, ADHD boys overwhelmingly rated their own performance more favorably than did controls and in some instances, these differences were more apparent following failure. The attributional pattern of ADHD and control boys differed in that ADHD boys were more likely than controls to attribute success to external, uncontrollable factors such as task ease and being lucky; controls, on the other hand, were more likely than ADHD boys to attribute initial failure to not having tried hard enough. Results are discussed in the context of existing literature documenting a positive illusory bias in ADHD boys' self-perceptions.     

Response Inhibition,Memory, and Attention in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Newly developed measures of response inhibition, verbal and non-verbal memory, and attention were applied to a sample of boys diagnosed with ADHD (n = 50; 14 predominantly inattentive type and 36 combined type) with no diagnosed comorbid conditions, who had received no stimulant medication for a minimum period of 20 hours prior to test administration. Performance was assessed relative to 50 individually age-matched control boys. Results revealed significant multivariate group differences on all three tests, supported by univariate effects on measures of verbal memory and attentional switching. In all cases, ADHD boys performed more poorly than the control boys. However, contrary to expectations, boys with ADHD made significantly fewer impulsive responses (false positives) on the specific measure of response, despite recording significantly more misses than the controls. Furthermore, no significant differences were observed according to ADHD subtype. The present research therefore demonstrates and more fully characterises the nature of the observed memory and attentional impairments in boys with ADHD and would appear to have clear implications for education and the further development of theory.     

干扰负载对注意缺陷多动障碍儿童视觉工作记忆的影响

为考察编码和提取阶段的干扰负载对注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童视觉工作记忆的影响。本研究采用纸笔测验,分别要求被试对编码和提取阶段的材料进行操作。结果发现,编码阶段,干扰负载对两组被试的影响没有显著差异;提取阶段,干扰负载对ADHD组被试的影响显著大于普通组被试。相对于普通组儿童而言,ADHD儿童的视觉工作记忆更易受到干扰负载的影响,这种影响体现在提取阶段。     

The “Batman Effect”: Improving Perseverance in Young Children

This study investigated the benefits of self‐distancing (i.e., taking an outsider's view of one's own situation) on young children's perseverance. Four‐ and 6‐year‐old children (N = 180) were asked to complete a repetitive task for 10 min while having the option to take breaks by playing an extremely attractive video game. Six‐year‐olds persevered longer than 4‐year‐olds. Nonetheless, across both ages, children who impersonated an exemplar other—in this case a character, such as Batman—spent the most time working, followed by children who took a third‐person perspective on the self, or finally, a first‐person perspective. Alternative explanations, implications, and future research directions are discussed.     

Modeling teachers’ reactions to unexpectedness

BackgroundEven experienced teachers make inconsistent classroom decisions in unexpected situations. From the cognitive load theory perspective, the effective handling of the novel, unexpected events by teachers depends on the cognitive load of the task, the teaching context in which the unexpectedness appears, and the available cognitive capacity.AimsTeachers’ reactions to unexpected mathematical events, in particular the unexpectedness of the arithmetic calculation, was modeled, investigated experimentally, and explained within the theoretical framework of cognitive load theory.Sample64 mathematics teacher trainees took part in the experiment.MethodsIn a dual-task arrangement, participants verified alternative answers to simple mathematical questions while memorizing task-irrelevant information. The answers represented low (schematic good responses), and high (unexpected good responses) processing load conditions, and control condition (incorrect responses). The memory load was low or high representing levels of extraneous load. The participants’ cognitive capacity was estimated by a complex working memory span task.ResultsThe verification of unexpected but correct answers was slow and more error-prone as compared with the processing speed and accuracy of schematic answers, presumably due to elevated processing (intrinsic) load. The increase in memory load resulted in slower and more inaccurate verifications. However, working memory capacity was found to mediate the extraneous load effect.ConclusionsThe results stress the importance of well-organized schemas for effective reactions to unexpected classroom events. Furthermore, it highlights the importance of accurately understanding and being aware of the impact of cognitive load on teachers to improve teaching practice.     

Emotion,understanding, and social skills among boys at risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

There is growing interest in the role of emotional competence in middle school children's adjustment and functioning, yet many populations remain underresearched. Few studies have explored the emotional competence, especially emotion understanding, of children with, or at risk of, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and even fewer have examined the role emotion understanding plays in these children's social skills. Our study investigates a profile of the emotion understanding capacities of Israeli boys at risk of ADHD and evaluates its association with their social skills. One hundred and fifty‐two boys (grades 4–6) were each assigned to an at‐risk (n = 66) or comparison (n = 86) group based on their scores on an ADHD symptoms questionnaire (Conners Rating System–Revised). The two groups were matched on age, socioeconomic status and class, and school environment. Group comparisons revealed that relative to their non–at‐risk counterparts, at‐risk boys demonstrated less mature emotion understanding. Finally, our findings indicate that poor emotion understanding plays a more notable role in the social functioning of at‐risk than non–at‐risk children. This study's contribution to the understanding and school treatment of children with ADHD emotional and social competencies is discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Training boys with ADHD to work collaboratively: Social and learning outcomes

This study examined social participation and strategic problem solving behavior of boys diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) when collaborating on a planning task with a trained peer partner. Twenty-four 9- to 13-year-old boys with ADHD who were receiving a medication intervention, were individually pre-tested to assess their initial ability to plan an errand route task. They were then observed doing an alternate planning task during collaborative sessions with a female peer partner who had received prior training in the task and in facilitating social interaction. Boys with ADHD were then individually post-tested on the original planning task. Observations of the collaborative sessions revealed significant, positive changes across three phases in the quality of social interactions by boys with ADHD, in their planning strategies, and planning efficiency. Findings suggest positive benefits of collaborative learning structures for boys with ADHD when they are placed in a collaborative learning setting with a partner who has received a prior training intervention.     

Sensitivity of Four Subtests of the Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA‐Ch) to Stimulant Medication in Children with ADHD

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were examined on four subtests of the Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA‐Ch) when on and off stimulant medication. Performance was assessed relative to 18 individually age‐matched controls. Children with ADHD performed significantly worse on TEA‐Ch measures when off compared to when on stimulant medication. This was found in both predominantly inattentive (n = 6) and combined inattentive and hyperactive‐impulsive (n = 12) subtypes. The age‐matched controls significantly improved with repeated testing on most TEA‐Ch measures. Significant differences were found between the unmedicated children with ADHD and age‐matched controls on sustained attention (Score! and Walk Don’t Walk) and attention control measures (Same and Opposite Worlds). When the ADHD group was on stimulant medication, with the exception of the Walk Don’t Walk subtest, no significant differences were found between them and the age‐matched controls. Unlike the TEA‐Ch subtests, the significant differences between the two groups on the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) subtests remained when attentional status was altered in the children with ADHD. The study supports further investigations of the TEA‐Ch as a measure sensitive to changes in stimulant medication in children with ADHD.     

Verbal skills in children with ADHD

The present study examined whether ADHD children exhibit low verbal IQ (VIQ) and distinguishable test profile on the Verbal comprehension (VC) and Freedom from distractibility (FFD) factors, and whether gender influences their verbal abilities. At the Laboratory of Neuropsychology of the Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly, WISC‐III verbal scales were administered to 69 ADHD children (50 boys and 19 girls) and controls who were matched for age and sex. Mean scores for all WISC‐III verbal scales, VIQ, VC and FFD of ADHD children were significantly lower than controls. FFD was found lower than VC and it correlated statistically significantly with VC in ADHD children. No gender differences were found among ADHD children.     

Resisting the sirens of temptation while studying: Using reappraisal to increase focus,enthusiasm, and performance

One of the major obstacles in the learning process is temptation, which has the power to divert students from even their most important goals (e.g. getting a degree). In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that cognitive reappraisal could be used to successfully resist temptation. Participants had to memorize tedious material while being tempted by pictures pasted on the wall (Study 1) or by funny clips on the television (Study 2). In Study 1, compared to a control group, participants who were instructed to reappraise the task as an opportunity to improve their memory (1) were less tempted by the pictures, (2) maintained their enthusiasm for the task, and (3) showed better performance in a subsequent memory test. Study 2 replicated and extended the findings from Study 1, showing that cognitive reappraisal is effective whether the target of reappraisal is the temptation itself, or the longer term goal. Taken together, our findings provide compelling evidence that cognitive reappraisal (of either the task or the temptation) may be a useful tool for increasing students' task performance and enthusiasm.     

Theory of mind,executive function and social competence in boys with ADHD

Abstract

Twenty-two boys with a diagnosis of ADHD were com-KEYWORDS pared with 22 typically developing boys on an advanced theory of mind task and on two tasks measuring aspects of executive function. Parents completed rating forms measuring general social competence, as well as mentalizing and non-mentalizing social behaviours. There were no differences between the groups on the advanced theory of mind measure.The children with ADHD scored more poorly than controls on an inhibition task but not on a planning task once age and IQ had been covaried. Ratings of social competence were correlated with theory of mind and executive function ability for the typically developing controls but not for the children with ADHD. The results are discussed in terms of inhibitory and social information processing accounts of ADHD.     

The specific involvement of verbal and visuospatial working memory in hypermedia learning

Many models have hypothesized that multimedia comprehension requires the concurrent processing of verbal and visuospatial information by limited information processing systems. However, in spite of the emphasis devoted to the concurrent processing of verbal and visuospatial information, little research has so far investigated the specific role played by verbal and visuospatial abilities in multimedia comprehension. The present paper aims to study the specific involvement of verbal and visuospatial working memory in multimedia learning. Ninety‐two students (39 boys and 53 girls) from a middle school in a small city in the northeast of Italy, were asked to learn new information on the physical and social geography of Germany from a hypermedium. Participants were also required to perform a reading comprehension test, two short‐term memory tasks, and two working memory tasks, which assessed either verbal or visuospatial memory. The results support the hypothesis that both verbal and visuospatial working memory sub‐components play a role in hypermedium processing, but with specific and distinct functions: the performance in the verbal working memory task was able to predict the semantic knowledge children can derive from hypermedia learning. In contrast, visuospatial working memory seemed to have lower connections to the semantic knowledge children derived from a hypermedia document, whereas its role emerged in the ability to construct a representation of the document structure.     

State anxiety and working memory in children: A test of processing efficiency theory

This study investigated the effect of individual differences in state anxiety on tasks tapping the central executive, phonological, and visuo‐spatial components of working memory (WM). It was designed to test Eysenck and Calvo’s processing efficiency theory (PET) which suggests that the phonological and executive components of WM may be important in understanding learning outcomes in anxiety. Typically‐developing children aged 9–10 years were split into high and low state anxiety groups. They performed three WM tasks – forward and backward digit span (assumed to measure phonological and central executive components of WM respectively) and a spatial working memory task (measuring the visuo‐spatial component of WM). Measurements of task accuracy were taken as an indicator of performance outcome or effectiveness. Time taken to complete tasks and a subjective rating of mental effort were taken as measurements of performance efficiency. No differences were found between high and low state anxiety groups in task accuracy for any measure. Children in the high state anxiety group, however, took longer to complete the backward digit span task and reported increased mental effort in the forward digit span task, indicating some effect of anxiety on measures of performance efficiency.     

The role of spoken and sign languages in the retention of written words by prelingually deafened native signers

The purpose of this study was to determine the nature and efficiency of the strategies used by prelingually deafened native signers for the temporary retention of written words with reference to a primary language-coding hypothesis (M. A. Shand, 1982). For the gathering of the data, participants were shown lists of serially presented written target words that they were asked to recognize according to their presentation order from within word pools that contained different types of code-specific distracter words. Three performance dimensions were examined: (a) false recognition of target words, (b) correct recognition of target words, and (c) retention of target word presentation order. Participants were prelingually deafened native signers (n=11, average grade level=8.18 [1.17]) and a hearing control group (n=25, average grade level=9.00 [0.76]). Findings from the analysis of the nature of false recognition and the number of correctly recognized words show convincingly that formationally similar distracter words interfered with the memory performance of the native signers and phonologically similar distracter words with that of the hearing control group. It was concluded that the participants decoded written words into a code reflecting their primary language experience for their temporary retention in working memory.     

Patterns of performance on the Stroop Color and Word Test in children with learning,attentional, and psychiatric disabilities

The study presented here investigated the performance of children with learning, psychiatric, and attentional disabilities on the Stroop Color and Word Test. Forty‐three children diagnosed with a full battery of tests as learning disabled (LD [reading]) in grades K through 6 were matched on age, gender, ethnicity, and grade with 43 normal controls. They were also matched with groups of 43 children with psychiatric disorders and 43 children with attentional problems. All subjects were given the Stroop test, which took about 4 minutes per subject. The results indicated clear differences between the groups, with the LD and the psychiatric/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) groups generating unique profiles different from the normal controls. The children with LD showed slower reading speed and less interference, while the subjects with ADHD and diagnoses showed impairment only on the Color‐Word score. A discriminant analysis using the three basic Stroop scales was able to significantly differentiate the LD group from the non–learning‐disabled (NLD) group (89%) and the LD group from a joint Psychiatric/ADHD group (86%). However, results were poorer for differentiating a joint LD/ADHD group from the NLD group (68%) and the LD from the ADHD group (59%). © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.