Parental reactions to children's negative emotions: longitudinal relations to quality of children's social functioning

Relations between self-reported parental reactions to children's negative emotions (PNRs) and children's socially appropriate/problem behavior and negative emotionality were examined longitudinally. Evidence was consistent with the conclusion that relations between children's externalizing (but not internalizing) emotion and parental punitive reactions to children's negative emotions are bidirectional. Reports of PNRs generally were correlated with low quality of social functioning. In structural models, mother-reported problem behavior at ages 10-12 was at least marginally predicted from mother-reported problem behavior, children's regulation, and parental punitive or distress reactions. Moreover, parental distress and punitive reactions at ages 6-8 predicted reports of children's regulation at ages 8-10, and regulation predicted parental punitive reactions at ages 10-12. Father reports of problem behavior at ages 10-12 were predicted by earlier problem behavior and parental distress or punitive reactions; some of the relations between regulation and parental reactions were similar to those in the models for mother-reported problem behavior. Parental perceptions of their reactions were substantially correlated over 6 years. Some nonsupportive reactions declined in the early to mid-school years, but all increased into late childhood/early adolescence.     

Parental coping with children's negative emotions: relations with children's emotional and social responding

This study examined the relation between parents' reactions to children's negative emotions and social competence. Additionally, the role of parental emotional distress in children's emotional socialization was examined. The emotional reactions of 57 preschoolers (33 girls, 24 boys; M age = 59.2 months) were observed during their free-play interactions. Parents (mostly mothers) completed questionnaires about their reactions to children's negative emotions. An index of children's social competence was obtained from teachers. Results indicated that the relation between harsh parental coping strategies and children's emotional responding was moderated by parental distress. In addition, the relation of the interaction of parental coping and distress to children's social competence was mediated by children's level of emotional intensity. It was concluded that distressed parents who use harsh coping strategies in response to children's negative emotions have children who express emotion in relatively intense ways. In turn, these children find it relatively difficult to behave in a socially competent manner.     

Academic entitlement: relations to perceptions of parental warmth and psychological control

Academic entitlement characterises students who expect positive academic outcomes without personal effort. The current study examined the relations of perceived parental warmth and parental psychological control with two dimensions of academic entitlement (i.e. entitled expectations and externalised responsibility) among college students. Psychology students participated by completing measures of perceived parenting and academic entitlement through an online survey system. Results demonstrated that perceived parental warmth was a negative predictor of externalised responsibility and parental psychological control was a positive predictor of externalised responsibility. Additionally, there was a warmth by control interaction such that parental psychological control was related to greater externalised responsibility only when combined with moderate to high parental warmth. For entitled expectations, both perceived parental warmth and psychological control were positive predictors. The findings suggest that parenting practices may play an important role in academic entitlement and highlight the need for further research to elucidate potential developmental pathways of academic entitlement.     

The relations between parental friendships and children's friendships: self-report and observational analysis

The relations between the quality of mothers' and fathers' friendships and that of their children's friendships was examined. One hundred twenty-five fourth-grade children (9 year olds) completed the Friendship Quality Questionnaire. Observational measures of the target children playing with their self-selected friend were also collected. Mothers and fathers separately completed the Friendship Quality Questionnaire about their best friend. Results indicated that children's self-reports and observational measures of friendship quality were not highly correlated for girls, but were moderately associated for boys. The quality of mothers' and fathers' friendships was related to the quality of children's friendships, but the nature of the relations with children's friendships differed for girls and boys. The implications of these findings for the socialization of friendship patterns and the assessment of children's friendships were noted.     

Relations among positive parenting, children's effortful control, and externalizing problems: a three-wave longitudinal study

In a 3-wave longitudinal study (with assessments 2 years apart) involving 186 early adolescents (M ages of approximately 9.3, 11.4, and 13.4), the hypothesis that parental warmth/positive expressivity predicts children's effortful control (EC) (a temperamental characteristic contributing to emotion regulation) 2 years later, which in turn predicts low levels of externalizing problems another 2 years later, was examined. The hypothesis that children's EC predicts parenting over time was also examined. Parents were observed interacting with their children; parents and teachers reported children's EC and externalizing problems; and children's persistence was assessed behaviorally. Children's EC mediated the relation between positive parenting and low levels of externalizing problems (whereas there was no evidence that children's EC predicted parenting).     

The association between preschool children's social functioning and their emergent academic skills

This study examined the relationship between social functioning and emergent academic development in a sample of 467 preschool children (M = 55.9 months old, SD = 3.8). Teachers reported on children's aggression, attention problems, and prosocial skills. Preliteracy, language, and early mathematics skills were assessed with standardized tests. Better social functioning was associated with stronger academic development. Attention problems were related to poorer academic development controlling for aggression and social skills, pointing to the importance of attention in these relations. Children's social skills were related to academic development controlling for attention and aggression problems, consistent with models suggesting that children's social strengths and difficulties are independently related to their academic development. Support was not found for the hypothesis that these relationships would be stronger in boys than in girls. Some relationships were stronger in African American than Caucasian children. Children's self-reported feelings about school moderated several relationships, consistent with the idea that positive feelings about school may be a protective factor against co-occurring academic and social problems.     

Personal best goals and academic and social functioning: A longitudinal perspective

Personal best goals (PB goals) articulate a target performance standard that matches or exceeds one’s previous best. This study examined the role of PB goals in academic and social functioning. Alongside academic and social outcome measures, PB goal items were administered to 249 high-school students at the beginning and end of their school year. Longitudinal structural equation modeling suggested, at Time 1, PB goals significantly predicted students’ deep learning, academic flow, academic buoyancy, positive teacher relationship, and favorable attitudes toward peer cooperation. Further, at Time 2, the effects of PB goals on deep learning, academic flow, and positive teacher relationship remained significant after controlling for prior variance of corresponding Time-1 factors, suggesting sustained benefits of PB goals in students’ academic and social development. These findings hold substantive, applied, and methodological implications for researchers and practitioners seeking to examine and harness PB goals in educational settings.     

Effects of the peer group on the development of social functioning and academic achievement: a longitudinal study in Chinese children

This longitudinal study examined, in a sample of Chinese children (initial mean ages = 9.5 and 12.7 years, N = 505), how the peer group contributed to social functioning and academic achievement and their associations. Data on informal peer groups, social functioning, and academic achievement were collected from multiple sources. Multilevel structural equation modeling revealed that group academic performance made direct contributions to children's social development. Group academic performance also moderated the individual-level relations between academic performance and later social functioning. Whereas high-achieving groups strengthened the positive relations between academic achievement and social competence, low-achieving groups facilitated the negative relations between academic achievement and social problems. The results indicate the significance of the peer group for social functioning from a developmental perspective.     

Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes

This study demonstrated separate linkages between 2 features of positive parenting--responsiveness to distress and warmth--and different aspects of children's socio-emotional functioning, in a sample of 106 children (6-8 years old). As expected, mothers' and fathers' responsiveness to distress, but not warmth, predicted better negative affect regulation. Maternal responsiveness to distress also predicted children's empathy and prosocial responding. Maternal warmth, but not responsiveness to distress, was linked to better regulation of positive affect and (in boys only) to greater peer acceptance. Additionally, negative affect regulation mediated between maternal responsiveness to distress and children's empathic responding. Positive affect regulation mediated between maternal warmth and boys' peer acceptance. The findings support a differentiated approach to positive parenting.     

LD status and achievement: confounding variables in the study of children's social status, self-esteem, and behavioral functioning

The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of achievement in explaining the poor social and behavioral functioning associated with LD status, and to evaluate potential gender differences in patterns of interpersonal functioning among youth with learning disabilities (LD) and nondisabled (NLD) youth. Thirty-two students with learning disabilities (21 boys, 11 girls) were matched with same-sex, same-race classmates whose reading achievement was low (LA) or average (AA), and these groups were compared on peer ratings of liking and disliking, perceptions of self-worth and social acceptance, and teacher ratings of conduct problems, anxiety-withdrawal, and attention problems. Students with learning disabilities were less accepted and less well-liked than children in the LA or AA groups and also perceived their self-worth and social acceptance to be lower than LA or AA students. Group by Sex interactions were apparent for several of the peer rating and behavioral variables, indicating that different patterns of social and behavioral functioning distinguished LD boys and LD girls from their NLD peers. The findings highlight the potential role of low achievement in peers' dislike of LD girls and suggest the importance of investigating well-defined subgroups of youth with LD in future research.     

The relations of parental supervision,parental school involvement,and child's social competence with school achievement in primary school

The aim of this study was to examine the relation of parental supervision, parental involvement at school and child's social competence with school achievement in primary school. A theoretical model was postulated that predicts direct and indirect effects of parental behaviors on adolescents’ school achievement. Participants were 1,024 adolescents attending Grades 5 through 8 in 20 primary schools in Croatia and one of their parents or guardians. Adolescents completed a scale assessing their self‐perceived social competence and data on their grade point average were collected. Parents completed scales measuring parental supervision and parental involvement at school and they rated their child's social competence. The results of model testing showed that parental behaviors have both direct and indirect effect on adolescents’ school achievement. Greater parental supervision and school involvement have a direct and an indirect, through their effects on child's social competence, positive effects on adolescents’ school achievement.     

Childhood maltreatment and alcohol-related problems in young adulthood: The protective role of parental warmth

BackgroundAlcohol use among young adults is highly prevalent. Individuals exposed to childhood maltreatment are particularly vulnerable to alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Few studies have examined family protective factors, such as parental warmth, that may mitigate the effects of childhood maltreatment on alcohol-related problems.ObjectiveThe current study seeks to examine the extent to which parental warmth reduces the effect of childhood exposure to maltreatment on alcohol-related problems in young adulthood.Participants and settingParticipants were young adults (N = 337; mean age = 21.7), who were recruited from an urban community and completed in-person interviews assessing childhood maltreatment, parental warmth, and alcohol-related problems.MethodsMultiple hierarchical linear regression models were used to examine whether maternal and paternal warmth reduced the impact of childhood exposure to maltreatment on alcohol-related problems in young adulthood. Common risk factors for alcohol-related problems, including psychological symptoms and peer and parental alcohol use, were also entered into the models.ResultsWe found a significant moderating effect of paternal warmth on the associations between childhood emotional abuse and alcohol-related problems (β= -0.29, p < .05). Specifically, the association between emotional abuse and alcohol-related problems was weaker among individuals with higher levels of paternal warmth. Moderating effects of maternal warmth on the maltreatment-problematic alcohol use relation were not supported.ConclusionThe results of this research suggest that parental warmth may not only relate to fewer alcohol-related problems among offspring, but may also modify the associations between childhood emotional abuse and alcohol-related problems during young adulthood.     

Family adversity,positive peer relationships,and children's externalizing behavior: a longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience

Peer acceptance and friendships were examined as moderators in the link between family adversity and child externalizing behavioral problems. Data on family adversity (i.e., ecological disadvantage, violent marital conflict, and harsh discipline) and child temperament and social information processing were collected during home visits from 585 families with 5-year-old children. Children's peer acceptance, friendship, and friends' aggressiveness were assessed with sociometric methods in kindergarten and grade 1. Teachers provided ratings of children's externalizing behavior problems in grade 2. Peer acceptance served as a moderator for all three measures of family adversity, and friendship served as a moderator for harsh discipline. Examination of regression slopes indicated that family adversity was not significantly associated with child externalizing behavior at high levels of positive peer relationships. These moderating effects generally were not qualified by child gender, ethnicity, or friends' aggressiveness, nor were they accounted for by child temperament or social information-processing patterns. The need for process-oriented studies of risk and protective factors is stressed.     

The influence of some parental characteristics on children's primary abilities and field independence: a study of adopted children.

The Children's Embedded Figures Test and measures of V, P, N and S abilities were administered to 5-7-year-old Belgian children (33 boys and 36 girls) adopted early in life. These child variables were correlated with the main factorial dimensions of the adoptive parents' answers on the Parental Attitude Research Instrument and on Buehler's Life Goals Inventory and with the adoptive mother's child-rearing practices, determined through an interview. The PARI dimensions were unrelated to children's test performances. Reinforcement of competition and independence, an interview variable, was significantly related to several ability measures and to the CEFT, especially in girls. The significant correlations of some LGI dimensions with boys' and/or girls' primary abilities were interpreted by referring to the influence on the development of children's abilities of a future-oriented attitude toward learning and memory and of a warm parent-child interaction.     

The peer group as a context: mediating and moderating effects on relations between academic achievement and social functioning in Chinese children

The purpose of the study was to examine, in a large sample of Chinese children and adolescents at 9, 13, and 16 years of age, the contextual effects of the peer group on relations between academic achievement and social functioning. Data on informal peer groups, social functioning and academic achievement were collected from multiple sources. It was found that peer groups were highly homogenous on academic achievement. Hierarchical linear modeling analysis revealed that academic achievement and social adjustment were associated at both the within-group individual level and the group level. Moreover, group academic performance moderated the relations between academic achievement and social adjustment such as peer acceptance, social competence, and leadership, suggesting that individual-level relations might be enhanced or exacerbated by group academic norms.     

Parental involvement in the development of children's reading skill: a five-year longitudinal study

This article presents the findings of the final phase of a 5-year longitudinal study with 168 middle- and upper middle-class children in which the complex relations among early home literacy experiences, subsequent receptive language and emergent literacy skills, and reading achievement were examined. Results showed that children's exposure to books was related to the development of vocabulary and listening comprehension skills, and that these language skills were directly related to children's reading in grade 3. In contrast, parent involvement in teaching children about reading and writing words was related to the development of early literacy skills. Early literacy skills directly predicted word reading at the end of grade 1 and indirectly predicted reading in grade 3. Word reading at the end of grade 1 predicted reading comprehension in grade 3. Thus, the various pathways that lead to fluent reading have their roots in different aspects of children's early experiences.     

The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's resiliency and adjustment

The unique relations of effortful control and impulsivity to resiliency and adjustment were examined when children were 4.5 to 8 years old, and 2 years later. Parents and teachers reported on all constructs and children's attentional persistence was observed. In concurrent structural equation models, effortful control and impulsivity uniquely and directly predicted resiliency and externalizing problems and indirectly predicted internalizing problems (through resiliency). Teacher-reported anger moderated the relations of effortful control and impulsivity to externalizing problems. In the longitudinal model, all relations held at T2 except for the path from impulsivity to externalizing problems. Evidence of bidirectional effects also was obtained. The results indicate that effortful control and impulsivity are distinct constructs with some unique prediction of resiliency and adjustment.     

Emergence of graphic symbol functioning and the question of domain specificity: a longitudinal training study

The impact of social scaffolding on the emergence of graphic symbol functioning was explored in a longitudinal training study. Links among graphic, language, and play domains in symbolic development were also investigated. The symbolic functioning of 16 children, who were 28 months at the outset of the study, was assessed in comprehension and production tasks across the three domains at monthly intervals from 28 to 36 months, and again at 42 months. Training was delivered in between monthly assessments during weekly visits. Half of the children received training, which consisted of the experimenter drawing common objects and highlighting the relation between pictures and their referents, for 16 consecutive weeks early in the study (early training, ET). The remaining half received a placebo version of training for these 16 weeks, followed by actual training for 4 weeks in the fifth month (late training, LT). After the first 4 months of training the ET group was found to have accelerated comprehension and production of graphic symbols relative to the LT group. After the fifth month, the LT group reached the same level of graphic symbol performance as the ET group. There were strong positive correlations found among graphic symbol functioning and language and play, and between play and language. These findings support the view that graphic symbolic development can be influenced by cultural scaffolding, that more extensive training is needed early rather than later in development, and that interrelationships exist among symbolic domains.