试析人与自然关系发展的历程

人与自然的关系已经三个阶段,第一阶段为渔猎文明时代,此时人们崇拜自然,敬畏自然。第二阶段为农业文明时代,人类中心主义思想萌发,人与自然关系开始出现矛盾和冲突。第三阶段为工业文明时代,人类中心主义思想充分发展,人与自然关系陷入严重的冲突之中,即将到来的第四阶段为生态文明时代,此时,人与自然和谐相处,并尊重自然,保护自然。     

人与自然和谐发展的基本途径

随着科学技术、生产力的迅速发展出现了很多问题。例如:人与人之间,人与社会,人与自然之间都出现了好多问题。但最主要的问题还是人与自然和谐发展的问题。这个问题是全球人都值得考虑跟深思的问题。人与自然的和谐发展是一个全球性、持久性的问题。所以,我们每一个人都必须得重视,在这个问题上每一个人都有责任跟义务。本论文主要论述人与自然在和谐发展的过程中主要是通过什么途径来实现的问题。     

Signal-directed behavior in the rat: Interactions between the nature of the CS and the nature of the UCS

Two experiments are described, which involved the investigation of interactions between the nature of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the nature of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in producing signal-centered behavior. In Experiment 1, rats received response-independent heat reinforcement in a cold environment. For some groups, this heat UCS was signaled by presentations of a standard aluminum retractable lever; for other groups, it was signaled by a retractable lever covered in acrylic fur (furry lever CS). Only the subjects that received the furry lever CS paired with heat exhibited differential CS-contact behavior, when compared with unpaired, aluminum lever, and warm control subjects. In Experiment 2, hungry rats received pairings of either an aluminum or a furry lever with food (UCS). When compared with unpaired controls, only the subjects that received the aluminum lever paired with food showed differential signal-directed behavior; the subjects receiving the furry lever CS did not show differential contact with the CS, but instead exhibited differential food tray entry behavior during CS presentation. In the two studies, the signal-directed behavior exhibited by subjects resembled either thermoregulatory or feeding behaviors characteristic of rats. The results suggest that signal-directed behavior is determined by a complex interaction between the ecological relevance of the CS and the nature of the UCS—an interaction that can best be described in terms of a behavior systems model of conditioned responding.     

Accurate DRL performance in the pigeon: Comparison between perching and treadle pressing

Homing pigeons were reinforced for emitting a perching response according to differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) schedules. The spacing requirement between successive perchings was progressively increased by 1-sec steps up to 70 sec and then abruptly decreased to 60, 40, and 20 sec. IRT/OP (interresponse time/opportunity) functions were maximal near the time of reinforcement. The coefficients of variation of the IRT distributions (ratio between the interquartile range and median IRT) fluctuated around .32, testifying for equivalent levels of adjustment throughout the critical IRT range. The ratio between reinforced and total IRTs ranged between .90 and .20. These data contrast with the performance of another group of pigeons reinforced for a treadle-pressing response according to DRL schedules (flatter IRT/OP functions, high coefficients of variation, and low efficiencies). Despite these differences in temporal regulation between perching and treadle-pressing DRL, response rates and reinforcement rates followed the same trend in both cases: they decreased as schedule value increased. The DRL perching results are similar to previous results obtained in the same species when perching duration was reinforced.     

金钱和爱情的交锋--解析海岩小说中的人性

小说与影视的结合在当代文艺界十分寻常。海岩的很多小说都被编排成剧本搬上荧幕。情节是这类小说取胜的关键,同时,小说没有现实性就没有观众。海岩小说抓住了人性最脆弱的部分,设置不同的场景,使金钱和爱情两个对立的价值观进行激烈的交锋,在虚构的战火里我们领略到了真正来自现实的人性。     

论人与自然的协调发展

在唯物辩证法看来,世界上的任何事物都是矛盾的统一体。我们面对现实世界,就是人类社会和矛盾双方组成的统一体,两者是辨证统一的关系。本文通过对人与自然关系的分析,进一步阐述了人与自然应该和谐发展。我们在利用自然的同时应该尊重自然、顺应自然,实现人与自然共存,人与自然的协调可持续发展。     

人与自然和谐关系的重要性以及构建途径

环境问题日益严重,正确看待以及正确构建人与自然的关系也变得更加重要。对于人与自然的关系要坚持以辩证唯物主义为世界观和方法论,从意识层面深刻认识到两者之间的和谐关系的重要性,从实践层面出发在实际中切实创造与维护人与自然的友好关系。     

人类的觉醒：人与自然关系的可持续发展

可持续发展思想是当今时代的旗帜和灵魂,可持续发展之路是世界和中国的唯一选择。     

The role of primary reinforcement and overt movements in autoshaping in the pigeon

Following sessions of free grain delivery, a transparent shield was placed over the magazine, which made food unavailable. Different groups of pigeons then “observed” positive, zero, or negative correlations between the keylight and inaccessible grain. Keypecks were rare in all groups. Next, the shield was removed, and a transfer-test was given in which all subjects were exposed to keylight presentations followed by available grain. The previously positive group pecked sooner and more frequently than the others. A second experiment, which yielded similar results, excluded the possibility that approaches to the keylight during the observation phase had mediated learning in the first experiment. These findings were discussed in relationship to operant and Pavlovian analyses of autoshaping.     

Imitation and social facilitation in the pigeon

The sight of another pigeon pecking a response key for grain resulted in similar pecking by more pigeons than did the sight of another pigeon eating or the sight of another pigeon (neither pecking nor eating). But more pigeons pecked the response key when they could see another pigeon that was neither pecking nor eating than when no other pigeon was there (whether or not key-light/grain pairings were observable in the adjacent compartment). Finally, observation of another pigeon pecking but not eating produced pecking comparable to observation of both pecking and eating. The presence of both imitation and social facilitation of keypecking were demonstrated. Observation of the consummatory response contributed little to keypecking.     

Relationship between affective determinants and achievement in science for seventeen-year-olds

Data collected in the 1976-1977 NAEP survey of seventeen-year-olds was used to reanalyze the hypothesis that there are affective determinates of science achievement. Factor and item analysis procedures were used to examine affective and cognitive items from Booklet 4. Eight affective scales and one cognitive achievement scale were identified. Using stepwise multiple regression procedures, the four affective scales of Motivation, Anxiety, Student Choice, and Teacher Support were found to account for the majority of the correlation between the affective determinants and achievement.     

The determinants of the scientific revolution

This article gives an indepth insight into the path leading to the Scientific Revolution which includes ancient theories of science and modern science and technology. This article is reproduced from the bookScience in the West and India: Some Historical Aspects, Editors B V Subbarayappa and N Mukunda, Published by Himalaya Publishing House, ’Ramdoot’, Dr Bhalerao Marg, Kelewadi, Girgaon, Mumbai 400 004, India.     

The determinants of the scientific revolution

In this article we discuss the more recent theories of the scientific revolution, the integration of mathematics with science and the importance of conceptual frameworks. This article is reproduced from the bookScience in the West and India: Some Historical Aspects, Editors B V Subbarayappa and N Mukunda, Published by Himalaya Publishing House, ‘Ramdoot’, Dr Bhalerao Marg, Kelewadi, Girgaon, Mumbai 400 004, India. The first part of this article appeared in September 1997.     

Stimulus salience and asymmetric forgetting in the pigeon

Pigeons were trained using a symbolic delayed matching-to-sample procedure involving bright versus dim houselight samples. We hypothesized that when sample stimuli differ in salience, increasing the size of the retention interval will affect performance on trials initiated by the more salient sample only. In agreement with this prediction, accuracy following the dim sample did not decline as the retention interval increased, whereas accuracy following the bright sample declined to well below 50% correct. In a second experiment, the less salient (dim) sample from Experiment 1 was arranged as the more salient sample in a sample/no-sample procedure. Accuracy on dim sample trials then declined to well below 50% correct as the retention interval increased, whereas accuracy on no-sample trials remained constant. The results suggest that when sample stimuli differ in salience, pigeons may transform the nominal discrimination task into a detection task in which they respond on the basis of the presence or absence of the more salient sample.     

The developmental nature of meta‐cognition and the relationship between knowledge and control over time

This study explored the development of meta‐cognitive knowledge and control, the relationship between the two constructs, the types of strategy knowledge Chinese students consider valuable and comparisons with US children's knowledge of strategies at the third‐grade level. One hundred and twenty students were randomly sampled from third‐, fifth‐ and seventh‐grade classes in China. Control was operationalised as comprehension monitoring and measured with CLOZE and Error Detection tasks, while awareness comprised declarative knowledge of strategies and was measured using an interview and a questionnaire. The findings indicated that knowledge of strategies and meta‐cognitive control develop over time, but knowledge develops at a faster rate in comparison. The evaluation of the relationships between the constructs suggested that the measurement format affected the students' accessibility of the declarative knowledge. The Chinese students demonstrated similarities in their knowledge of useful strategies, with previewing and activating background knowledge as the most valued strategies.     

Transfer of oddity learning in the pigeon

Two pigeons were trained on a six-key modified oddity-from-sample procedure. The stimuli were olor pictures of birds, butterflies, and human faces. Initially, the third peck on the sample key which presented one of three different bird pictures) lit only one comparison key. Every three dditional pecks on the sample illuminated another comparison key. Fifteen sample pecks produced he maximum of five comparison stimuli. A peck on the comparison key that presented the non-atching bird picture produced grain. Pecks on matching keys turned off all the comparison keys nd repeated the trial. The birds learned to peck each sample until the non-matching comparison timulus was produced, and then to peck that key. After acquisition (70%–90% accuracy), the hree bird stimuli were replaced by a new set of three bird pictures. Subsequent phases provided ew sets of bird, butterfly, and human face stimuli. Both birds showed transfer of oddity learning o the novel samples. The data suggest that the birds may have been engaging in conceptual-type oddity learning, rather than learning discrete five-key discriminations or a series of two component chains.     

The hidden curriculum and the nature of conflict

There has been, so far, little examination of how the treatment of conflict in the school curriculum can lead to political quiescence and the acceptance by students of a perspective on social and intellectual conflict that acts to maintain the existing distribution of power and rationality in a society. This paper examines two areas—social studies and science—to indicate how an unrealistic and basically consensus-oriented perspective is taught through a hidden curriculum in schools. The argument centers around the fundamental place that forms of conflict have had in science and the social world and on the necessity of such conflict. The paper suggests that a greater emphasis in the school curriculum upon the ideal norms of science, e.g., organized skepticism, and on the uses of conflict could counterbalance the tacit assumptions being taught.

---

Résumé On n'a guère étudié jusqu'à présent comment la façon d'aborder le problème des incompatibilités dans le programme d'études peut contribuer à la paix politique et à l'acceptation par les étudiants d'une certaine perspective du conflit social et intellectuel qui contribue à la préservation de l'actuelle répartition de l'autorité et de la rationalité au sein d'une société. La présente communication étudie les deux domaines des sciences humaines et des sciences pures pour souligner comment, par le truchement d'un programme d'études camouflé, on enseigne dans les écoles une attitude qui manque de réalisme et qui est essentiellement fondée sur la notion d'unanimité. Le raisonnement de l'auteur se fonde surtout sur la position fondamentale qu'occupent certaines formes de conflit dans le domaine de la science et des problèmes sociaux et sur l'utilité de tels conflits. L'auteur estime que l'on pourrait faire contrepoids aux hypothèses tacites enseignées à l'heure actuelle, en mettant dans les programmes scolaires davantage l'accent sur les normes scientifiques idéales, autrement dit sur un scepticisme méthodique et sur les avantages des conflits en question.

     

论洋务学堂的性质

对于洋务运动时期兴办的洋务学堂的性质,史学界关注甚少。本文从教育目的、课程设置、考试制度及教学方式等方面进行分析,认为洋务学堂是带有资本主义因素的封建民族教育。